Contribution of Theory of Mind in Social Progress: Autistic and Sensory Impaired Children - Essay Example

(3 March 2006) Contribution of Theory of Mind in Social Progress: Autistic and Sensory Impaired Children Normal versus Noncommunicative Children Can theory of mind be applied to normal children, or does it determine whether a child is normal in the first place In order to have deep feelings, says Ken Fabian ("A Feeling-Based Theory of Autism," bullet No. 3), one must experience the deep feelings of others. Those who do and go on to show empathy for others are usually categorised as "normal." Most noncommunicators, i.e. autistic children, have no discernable disruption in their minds, but given the acceptance in society of what is normal, they are not considered normal children. Questions under consideration are "How much of the activities of an autistic child are self-propelled Can empathy be developed in sensory-impaired children Can a child be considered normal if he/she lacks empathy What constitutes normalcy in a child For purposes of this paper, "normal" will be related to empathy, and "noncommunicative" to autistic and sensory impaired children. Whether theory of mind, first actually created as an assessment tool in 1999, has contributed to the development of normal children or whether it helps in the social development of noncommunicative children will be addressed. TOM Test Related to Normal Children In assessing normal children through theory of mind, a university working group evaluated the degree of empathy and narrative thought in children bullying other children or children being bullied (Smorti et al, Theory of Mind in Bullying, n. pag.). As a result of the study, it was determined that because of the fact that most theory of mind tests were devised for preschool children, further research would be necessary in order to reach a conclusion about the actual effects of theory of mind (Mullin-Rindler et al). It must be noted that most children under the age of 4 have not had enough experience to look outside themselves and empathize with others. In fact, it has been shown that children at this early age need education on how to empathize, and Mary VanClay offers teaching suggestions on the Parent Center website as to how this can be accomplished ("The Caring Child," 2006). This reflection tends to contradict the concept that normalcy is defined by empathy. On the other hand, it doesn't define bullies or victims as normal, nor are they considered noncommunicative. If indeed the noncommunicative child can be taught to have empathy, this would be a major advance in the treatment of autism. In narrative thought processes, Smorti's study indicates that bullies scored higher than victims in completeness of story scheme and organised thinking. However, other factors must be taken into consideration, for instance, linguistic factors, before a final conclusion can be reached. The study therefore has its weaknesses as an indicator of organised thinking. The above conclusions and weaknesses have been corroborated in a university study conducted by J.I.M. Carpendale and Charlie Lewis in 2003. It was their contention that the role of social interaction in the development of social understanding was necessary for normal children, but their studies were mainly based on infant behavior and children under the age of 4. According to their findings, theory of mind focuses on the single mind of an individual child, while social developmentists focus on the interaction of group (p. 4). It is their belief that children do not acquire an understanding of talk about the psychological world in an all or none fashion. Concepts are not passed on, ready-made, through language. Criteria are multiple and children may initially acquire a subset, which enables them to use words apparently correctly in supportive contexts. It is only through communicative interaction with others about beliefs (sometimes differing, sometimes concordant) about the world that children gradually construct an understanding of belief (p. 20). This concept is called an "epistemic triangle." The conclusion is that "traditional accounts of 'theory of mind' can only go so far in adding to the list of social influences on the child simulator/theoretician before coming to realize that a social dimension has to be incorporated into such theories (p. 30). They stress the importance of exploring what happens to children after age 4 because children understand language differently as they get older, and understanding of language meaning determines understanding of verbs related to mental states (p. 32). Empathy in Sensory-Impaired Children In a recent newspaper article, it was noted the results of a university study showed that the inablility to feel for others is attributed to "malfunctioning mirror neurons." These neurons are said to play a "central role in the social isolation of autistic children (Goldberg, par. 5). Autistic children, Goldberg goes on to say, "often seem to be unable to read emotions and intentions, and unable to develop a 'theory of mind'__the idea that other people think and feel as they do" (par. 8). Mirror neurons are said to help form the biological basis of empathy and the penchant for imitation that leads to feeling for others, a reflection of the deeper feelings referred to earlier by Fabian. Two areas of research are underway, Goldberg reports, with the following concepts: if autism is discovered early, it might be possible to fix the malfunction. Also, other parts of the brain might be able to compensate for the damaged neurons (pars. 17-18). There is no lack of information on autism on the Internet since the subject became a public concern, especially after the success of "Rainman (1988), a movie dealing with autism, starring Dustin Hoffman and Tom Cruise. Until the 1980s little was known about pervasive development disorders such as autism, Asperger syndrome and ASD (autistic spectrum disorders). The Autism Research Unit was established in the UK in 1982 to provide a basis for possible causes and a store of research information on autism. Some questions that have arisen are: Is it metabolic Does it have a connection to diet What is the connection between autism and vaccination Ongoing research is being done on these issues, with regular updates (ARS: Autism and Vaccination, 02 July 2005 and ARS: Urinary Analysis, 08 March 2005). In his paper called "Self Organization in Normal and Abnormal Cognitive Development," Denis Mareschal discusses the way in which deviations in constraints can lead to development of abnormal behaviors. Special attention is paid to models of development in autistic children. Mareschal discusses the "theory of mind" hypothesis as one of the leading explanations of the deficits in autism. Because autistic children have an inability to empathize, this leads to specific impairments in social skills, communication and imagination. It has become common to characterize developmental disorders as if they were equivalent to brain damage (p. 32). Through the use of artificial neural network models, different system constraints have been explored in an effort to study processes of self organisation in the brain. Self organisation is a fundamental characteristic of the brain in both linguistic and cognitive domains. Mareschal considers existing connectionist models insufficient and suggests more study into synaptogenesis (creation of new synapses in the brain) (p. 34). The Importance of Synaptogenesis in Social Development The most recent education studies in the UK indicate that children in general are not reaching an acceptable level of literacy, and all indications are that children should not start school until they are at least six years old (Berliner, 2005). The Early Years Learning program instituted a study in 2000 to determine the way in which children learn and how that relates to when they should enter school. In keeping with "theory of mind," the Sally-Anne false belief task tests the child's ability to follow the thinking of another person. A child is shown an object being placed in a container labeled "Sally." While the child is out of the room, the object is moved to Anne's box. Three-year-olds go straight to Sally's box, as do children with autism (Box 8). The study of synaptogenesis is discussed within the education site. It is noted that neurons grow, but the "wiring" of the brain called synapses sees the most significant change, and this has been shown to happen between birth and three-years-old. However, most of the research has been animal research, and very little has been carried out on human infants. Because the time course for synaptogenesis is different for different brain areas, as well as different from animals, there is little doubt that this is a subject that needs a great deal more study (Box 8). The belief that most of the brain growth occurs before the age of three has encouraged parents to believe their children are capable of understanding much more than they actually do. Problems in Theory of Mind Studies Because the study of autism is a relatively new hypothesis in relationship to theory of mind, and in fact was not considered a priority for study until recently, far more research must be done on theory of mind before autism and related disorders can be completely connected to it. Autism itself was little known before the 1980s and it wasn't until Baron-Cohen's Mindblindness was published in 1995 that there was any indication it might more than a mind disorder. Studies that have been undertaken since then have mostly been on preschool children from birth to three years, and, according to research, the reason for this is the concept that by age three, the brain has reached maximum growth. This concept is presently under question, and for that reason, much of the material used here is already out of date. Scientists have recently identified some genes as playing a possible role in autism, and the exploration of synaptogenesis therefore becomes important as a future research project ("Autism and Communication;" Cline). Most of the studies so far have been with animals, and humans should be studied (Yishi). Studying effective use of language speech and language features in autism also becomes a priority. There is a great deal more to be learned. Works Cited "Autism and Communication," National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. Updated 21 Feb. 2006. 2 March 2006 http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/autism.asp Autism Research Unit. University of Sutherland, Updates 2 July 2001 and 8 March 2005). 1 March 2006 http://osiris.sunderland.ac.uk/autism/what.htm Autism Society of America. "Pervasive Development Disorder," 1999, n. pag. 2 March 2006 http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServerpagename=PDD. Baron-Cohen, Simon. Mindblindness. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1995. Berliner, Wendy. (2005) "War of Words," The Guardian, 2 March 2006 http://education.guardian.co.uk/egweekly/story/0,5500,1451842,00.html "Brain Development: The Neuroscience and Education Debate, Early Years Learning," Post 140, June 2000. 2 March 2006 http://www.parliament.uk/post/pn140.pdf Carpendale, J.I.M., and Charlie Lewis. "Constructing an Understanding of Mind: The Development of Children's Social Understanding with Social Interaction," Draft for Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 1-53. 2 March 2006. http://www.psych.lancs.ac.uk/people/uploads/CharlieLewis20030618T085607.pdf Cline, Hollis. Neurobiology: Synaptogenesis, Excitation, and Inhibition, Science Week, 2005. 2 March 2006 http://scienceweek.com/2005/sw050506-5.htm Fabian, Ken. "A Feeling-Based Theory of Autism. [online] Revised 22 April 2005. 1 March 2006 http://web1.greatbasin.net/sprang/spectrum.htm. Fisher, Julie, Chair. "Memorandum from the Early Years Curriculum Group (EY 48), The United Kingdom Parliament, 2000. 2 March 2006 http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmeduemp/386/0040403.htm Goldberg, Carey. "We feel your pain. . . and your happiness too: the human brain's source of empathy may also play a role in autism." The Boston Globe on the Web 12 Dec. 2005. 1 March 2006 http://www.boston.com/news/globe/health_science/articles/2005/12/12/we_feel_your_pain_and_your_happiness_toomode=PF Mareschal, Denis. "Self-Organization in Normal and Abnormal Cognitive Development," Handbook of Brain and Behavior in Human Development, Undated. [online pp. 1-32]. 2 March 2006 http://www.psyc.bbk.ac.uk/people/academic/mareschal_d/Mareschal1.rtf Mullin-Rindler, Nancy, Maureen Crowley, Ann Marie White, Nancy Keefe, Fran Chickering and Wendy Wagner Robeson. "The Empathy Project," NICHD Study of Early Child Care, n. pag. 1 March 2006. http://www.wcwonline.org/empathy/ Smorti, Andrea, S. Bisaccia & S. Pagnucci, L. Morley-Williams, R. Ortega & J. Ortega, P. K. Smith & S. Kaipianen, S.Guidi. "Theory of Mind in Bullying: A Methodical Reassessment," TMR Network Project, December 1999. 2 March 2006. http://www.gold.ac.uk/tmr/reports/aim2_firenze1.html VanClay, Mary. "The Caring Child: How to Teach Empathy," Parent Center, n. pag. [online] 1 March 2006 http://parentcenter.babycenter.com/refcap/preschooler/praising/65717.html (1) Yishi, Jin. "Synaptogenesis," Worm Book, 2005. 2 March 2006. http://wormbook.sanger.ac.uk/chapters/www_synaptogenesis/synaptogenesis.html Read More