The Academy Founded by Plato in Athens - Essay Example

Plato's Academy 2008 Plato's Academy The Academy founded by Plato in Athens in 387 BC after returning from the trip to Sicily was anassociation of the most educated people of those days. The Academy was located in the famous groves and gardens allegedly left by Academus or Hecademus, the mythical Athenian hero who revealed where Helen was hidden. The garden used by the citizens for gymnastics was purchased by Plato who eventually built a house establishing the school that became known as the Academy from the name of the mythical Academus (Chermiss 1980). However, the Academy was not a formal school in the traditional sense of this word. Although Plato did deliver his lectures there, "the metaphysical theories of the director [Plato] were not in any way 'official' and the formal instruction in the Academy was restricted to mathematics" (Chermiss 1980, p.18). In other words, the Academy was an association of highly educated people engaged in independent research and studies. The Old Academy As the founding father of the Academy, Plato became its first Head (scholarch) and remained at this position for forty years. Plato's immediate successor as the Head of the Academy was his 40-year old nephew Speusippus (347-339 BC) who, after his uncle's death in 347BC, remained scholarch for the next eight years. According to his contemporaries, Speusippus was a proliferate writer who produced many works written in the form of treatise and dialogues. Unfortunately, we have only few of the texts attributed to him: the information on Speusippus ideas and doctrines is primarily retrieved from third party sources (Dilon 2003). The scarce information available these days makes it clear that despite his familial connection with Plato, Speusippus could barely be named as the continuator of his uncle's major ideas. In particular, Speusippus rejected the famous Theory of Forms developed by Plato during his years at the Academy. Besides, Speusippus believed that the Good was secondary while Plato maintained the Good was ultimately primary. Also, Speusippus claimed it was not possible to have comprehensive knowledge of any thing without understanding of the properties that distinguish this thing from other things. These views differed substantially from the principles argued by Plato in his broad philosophic doctrine. And only in his works dedicated to ethics, Speusippus abided by the views similar to those of Plato: he further elaborated Plato's ideas of citizenship, justice and legislation as well as opposed the hedonistic theory of the value of life proposed by Aristippus of Cyrene, founder of the Cyrenaic school. Speusippus also studied the science of numbers and, contrary to Plato, rejected the theory of ideal numbers (the Platonic Forms of numbers) which further led him to rejection of the Platonic concept of ideas in general (Smith 2007, III, pp. 893-894). In 339BC, Xenocrates of Chalcedon, a renowned philosopher and mathematician, became the next scholarch of the Academy. Xenocrates did abide by the views of Plato and further elaborated the ideas and theories of his famous predecessor often using mathematical instruments and elements in doing so. In particular, Xenocrates contributed significantly to the studies of demonology (Platonic theology). The scholar believed that duality and unity were gods which ruled the world and pervaded all things while the human soul was a self-moving number and that the demonical powers that also existed in the universe acted as an intermediate link or channel between the divine and the soul: "Xenocrates distinguishes three cosmological causes: the Forms as original patterns, the demiurge, and matter. Via allegories he combines the philosophical worldview with mythical religion" (Ricken 1991 pp. 119-120). Xenocrates' interpretations of Plato's principles (particularly his attempt to order philosophic principles into logic and mathematics) seriously supplemented the foundations of Platonist philosophy. Polemon of Athens became the Head of the Academy in 314 following the death of Xenocrates. Polemon was particularly interested in ethics, and followed closely his predecessor in his philosophic endeavors. According to Diogenes, Polemon left several major treatises none of which, unfortunately, survived (Smith 2007, III p. 434). However, it is known that Polemon rejected the dialectic form as an appropriate method of philosophic inquiry and specifically emphasized the importance of exercising in things and deeds and living in accord with the laws of nature (). Polemon's rule was exceptionally long: he died approximately in 269BC and was replaced by his intimate friend Crates who briefly ruled the Academy from to 266 BC. Other known representatives of the Old Academy were Aristotle, Heraclides Ponticus, Philip of Opus, Eudoxus of Cnidus, and Crantor (Chermiss 1980). The Middle Academy The next phase in the Academy's development began in 266BC when Arcesilaus became scholarch. During that period that lasted till the middle of the 2nd century BC the Academy departed seriously from the doctrine of traditional Platonism toward the philosophy of skepticism. The core idea of this philosophy promoted by Arcesilaus was subjectivity of human perception of the surrounding world. Arcesilaus' successors were Lacydes of Cyrene (241-215 BC), Euander and Telecles (jointly) (205-c. 165 BC), and Hegesinus (c. 160 BC) who continued in skeptical philosophy (Keimpe, Barnes and Mansfeld 1999, pp. 31-32). This phase is usually addressed as the Second or Middle Academy. The New Academy In 155BC, Carneades of Cyrene became the scholarch and the Third or New Academy began. Carneades represented the radical wing of skepticism: he rejected almost every dogmatic doctrine of the past (e.g. Stoicism, the Epicurean doctrine, etc.), put in question the universal ethical concepts such as justice and reasoning, and was the first philosopher to argue that metaphysics failed to discover any rational meaning in religious beliefs. At the same time, Carneades proposed a theory of probability claiming that despite deceptiveness of senses and reasoning human beings are capable of revealing probabilities of truth: precisely this quality enable humans to act correctly (Smith 2007, I p.614). In 129BC Carneades was succeeded by Clitomachus of Carthage. Clitomachus was exceptionally prolific as a writer: he is known to have written 400 books. The disciple and close friend of Carneades, he continued to maintain skepticism as the core perspective in the Academy though also studied the doctrines of the Stoics and Peripatetics rejected by Carneades (Smith 2007, I p.624). In 110BC, Philo of Larissa, the new Head of the Academy, made an attempt to return to the original Platonism. However, the result was a merger of several philosophies including traditional Platonism, moderate form of Skepticism (acceptance of the fact that humans can have some objective knowledge of the world) and Stoicism with elements of other popular doctrines. However, after the death of Philo in 83 BC the Academy returned to the dogmas rejected during the Middle and New Academies (Keimpe, Barnes and Mansfeld 1999, pp. 32-33). That marked the end of the New Academy. After a brief period of revival associated with Hellenistic rhetorician and philosophical critic Cassius Dionysius Longinus (213-273 AD), the Academy was finally re-established in 410 AD as the center of Neo-Platonist philosophy which was the dominating doctrine during the period of late antiquity. The philosophy of Neo-Platonism is associated with Ammonius Saccas (approximately 175-250 AD), who taught philosophy at Alexandria (Finegan 1989, p. 179). Neo-Platonism has must in common with the doctrine of Stoicism, and particularly its religious interest. Thus, the concept of logos that originated from Stoicism found its place in the philosophy of Neo-Platonism. Other key representatives of Neo-Platonism were Plutarch of Athens, Proclus, Damascius and Simplicius. The Neo-Platonism period in the Academy's life ends with its closing of by Emperor Justinian I in 529 AD though in the East (Persia) the school maintained strong positions up to the middle of the 7th century (Sedley 1981, p.73). It is a recognized fact that "beginning with apologetics in the second century up to the recovery of Aristotle since the middle of the twelfth century Christian philosophy and theology are influence by Middle and Neo-Platonism" (Finegan 1989, p. 227). The influence could be traced in the works of many founders of the Christian Church that underwent the period of formation at that time. Evidently, that influence was not consistent and measurable but its presence could hardly be put in question. For example, Origen (approximately 185-254 AD), one of the most distinguished of the early fathers of the Christian Church, was known to attend the lectures of Ammonius Saccas and to study the philosophy of Plato. And although Origen never officially turned a Neoplatonist "he entertained many similar views - due to the influence of which Greek Christianity was always more Neoplatonic than Latin Christianity" (Finegan 1989, p. 180). WORKS CITED Algra, Keimpe, Jonathan Barnes, and Jaap Mansfeld (Eds). The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 1999. Chermiss, Harold. The riddle of the early Academy. New York, 1980. Dillon, John. The Heirs of Plato: A Study of the Old Academy (347-274 B.C.). Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Finegan, Jack. Myth and Mystery. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1989. Ricken, Friedo. Philosophy of the Ancients [translated by Eric Watkins]. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1991. Sedley, David. "The end of the Academy". Phronesis 26, 1981, pp. 67-75. Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Volume I, III.. I. B. Tauris, 2007. Read More