Obesity and Children in USA - Research Paper Example

Obesity and children in USA Abstract Researchers have defined obesity as the accumulation of fats in the adipose tissue. This fat interferes with the health of the affected individuals. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is the universal metric capacity of obesity. It is a measure of the ration of weight to height of an individual. A lot of research has been done to establish the causes of obesity in children. More research has been done to know the susceptibility of children to obesity in terms of gender, age, ethnicity and family background. The literature review mainly talks about the organizations involved in the research, the research outcomes and conclusions. According to the 2000 Centers for Diabetes Control and prevention (CDC), sex specific BMI from age growth charts reveal that persons with a BMI exceeding 95th percentile are overweight. Children with BMI between 85th to 95th percentiles are at risk a risk of obesity. According to the World Health organization (WHO), BMI rations are used instead of percentiles in determining persons with obesity. It states that persons with BMI below 18.5 are malnourished while persons with BMI of 18.5 to 24.9 are normal; those persons with BMI above 25 are overweight. The overweight group is further classified into four groups. These groups are; pre-obese whose members have a BMI of 25 -29.9, Class I obese who have a BMI of 30 -34.9, Class II obese have BMI of 35-39.9, and Class III obese have BMI above 40. The National Health and Examination Survey (NHANES) and (CDC) report of 2007-2008 on age difference shows that about 17% or 12.5 million US children and adolescents are obesity victims. This comprises of 10.4% of 2-5 year olds, 19.9% of 6-11 year olds and 18.1% of 12-19 year olds. The probability of adolescents being obese is higher than the probability of the kindergarten children been obese. Basing on ethnicity and gender in the United States, there are high incidences of obesity in the pediatric residents. Mexican American boys are more prone to obese than non Hispanic white boys. Among Girls, non Hispanic Black girls are more prone to obesity than the non Hispanic white girls. The 2007 Obesity Action Coalition (OAC) study established the various causes of child obesity. These factors include; the environment, lack of physical activity, inheritance, family nutritional patterns, and socio-economic status (SES). In addition, there is a decline in the activity levels and an increase in the “normal” intake of highly processed “empty calorie” foods among children and the adolescents. Due to the mounting use of electronics like computers, video games, and television, the overall children’s physical activity has reduced which is also measured as a casual agent of childhood obesity Literature review The characteristic of child obesity is the undue buildup of adipose tissues in the body hence obstructing a child’s health. In 1980 to 1999, the number of obesity incidences in United States tripled. Particularly, it was recorded among children aged between 2-19 years. In 1999 to 2008 the rate and occurrences stagnated. Childhood obesity is a health distress, since when these children grow up they become obese adults. Moreover, the condition increases the risk of suffering from the high blood pressure, undesirable lipids levels, and insulin resistance (Atkinson, & Macdonald, 2009). Health practitioners use percentage of body fat in measuring the body composition. The most common metric capacity of obesity is the Body Mass Index (BMI). This offers a measure of weight in relation to height. The BMI is the most useful, indirect determinant of body composition since it is easy to obtain and correlates well with the genuine levels of body fat. It is also important in the calculation of health risks. Numerous researchers regard persons with a BMI exceeding 95th percentile on the 2000 Centers for Diabetes Control and prevention (CDC) sex specific BMI from age growth charts as qualified obese (Maniccia, Davidson., Manganello, & Dennison, 2011). The CDC 2000 growth charts were made in 1960 from five US nationwide representative surveys II and III. The National Health and Examination Survey (NHANES) I and II was done in the 1970s, and NHANES III was done from 1988 to1994 for children below the age of six years. The entire weight data from NHANES III for children aged six years and above were omitted in the charts due to the secular escalation in body weight in the 1980s. The 2000 CDC charts was a review of the 1977 NCHS growth charts (Renzaho, Halliday, & Nowson, 2011). The expert committees in the 1990s stipulated that children at or above the 95th percentile of BMI were regarded as overweight. In addition, children between 85th to 95th percentiles were said to be at risk. Regarding body weight, the World Health Organization (WHO) state that persons with BMI below 18.5 are malnourished while persons with BMI of 18.5 to 24.9 are normal; those persons with BMI above 25 are overweight. The overweight group is further classified into four groups. These groups are; pre-obese whose members have a BMI of 25 -29.9, Class I obese have a BMI of 30 -34.9, Class II obese have BMI of 35-39.9, and Class III obese have BMI above 40 (International Association for the Study of Obesity, 2005). Available estimates of obesity occurrence in the United States were obtained from the NHANES. In 2009, the Centers for Diabetes Control and prevention (CDC) or National Centers for Health Statistics (NCHS) (CDC/NCHS) conducted a study on the complex, multi-stage likelihood sample of the US society, and the non-institutionalized population. NCHS Ethics Review Board reviewed and approved the NHANES report. During the survey period of 1999-2000 and 2007-2008, Mexican American and Non-Hispanic blacks were over sampled. In the period between 1999 and 2006, adolescents were over sampled (Atkinson, & Macdonald, 2009). The latest information from 2007 -2008 studies show that about 17% or 12.5 million US children and adolescents are obesity victims. This comprise of 10.4% of 2-5 year olds, 19.9% of 6-11 year olds and 18.1% of 12-19 year olds. Age difference is significant in this regard (Atkinson, & Macdonald, 2009). The probability of adolescents being obese is higher than the probability of the kindergarten children. During 1999 -2008, there were no major trends in obesity occurrence among children. The change in occurrence of obesity is not a full indication of body weight change in the US residents. Available figures from previous studies indicate an escalating twist and reallocation in the distribution of BMI between 1976-1980 and 2003-2006, where there was an increase in weight for most heavy persons (Atkinson, & Macdonald, 2009). The occurrence of obesity is high in the pediatric residents in the United States, but some subgroups among the residents are more susceptible than other groups. Ethnic groups indicate significant differences. Mexican American boys for instance, are more liable to obese in relation to the non Hispanic white boys. Among Girls, non Hispanic Black girls are more liable to obese as compared to non Hispanic white girls. 24.9% of Mexican boys and 15.75% of non-Hispanic white boys were obese in 2007 to 2008. Amid girls, 22.75% of non-Hispanic black and non-Hispanic white girls were obese (Maniccia, Davidson, Manganello, & Dennison, 2011). Information from NHANES has been used to study the adiposity level of children and adolescents in special BMI categories. There are considerable differences in body fat between ethnic groups at the similar BMI level. Body fat percentage for Non Hispanic black children is lower than the body fat percentage for the non- Hispanic whites and Mexican American children who are likely to have high adiposity. The dominance of high adiposity was considerably lower among non-Hispanic black boys and girls as to non-Hispanic white boys and girls (Renzaho, Halliday, & Nowson, 2011). According to report from the American Heart Association of approximately 40 years, the frequency of overweight children of 6 to 11 years has augmented from 4.2% to 15.3 % and from 4.6% to 15.5% for adolescents. Information from NHANES used in various studies since 1963 to 2004, has shown that the occurrence rates have increased steadily from 4.6 % to 17.4 %. These figures demonstrate an increase in childhood obesity occurrence rates in the United States population in the past four decades. This led to a research which was to establish what had caused the increase (Van Cauwenberghe et al, 2010). Child obesity has numerous causes which are based on the imbalance between obtained calories from food and disposed calories via physical activity. The Obesity Action Coalition (OAC) did a study in 2007; in which the researchers found out that there are five major factors that contribute to the epidemic. These factors include; environment, lack of physical activity, inheritance and family nutritional patterns, and socio-economic status (SES). The prevalence of these factors increases the probability of a child being an obese. OAC does not recognize the history of discrimination as possible cause obesity (Atkinson, & Macdonald, 2009). The environment molds children’s conduct, habits, and perceptions. Over time, food supply to Americans has changed; there has been a dramatic increase in the average calories intake. WHO affirms that, persons in the United States are constantly offered a surplus of prepackaged rations with a lot of carbohydrates and fats which contain a lot of preservatives and other additive compounds. These have substituted the fresh fruits offered by local farmers. Compared to the late 1970s, recent research has indicated that in all age groups, Americans are the leading in eating processed snacks than ‘actual’ food. Furthermore, according to the OAC, in the United States approximately 40% to 50 % of every dollar is spent on processed food (Renzaho, Halliday, & Nowson, 2011). Currently in the United States, the popularity of television commercials that encourage eating of processed food contributes to the increase in childhood obesity rate. OEC affirms that media selling that targets children, adolescents, and adults have a great effect on the prevalence of obesity. Marketing techniques such as “supersizing it” at prompt restaurants, pizza, and taco promotions, and the marketing of extra-large soda, fruit drink, and sports drinks also add to the frequency of obesity (Atkinson, & Macdonald, 2009). Such selling forces are hard for parents to conquer in that; peer pressure amid children can be a source of social norm regarding the suitable foods and drink. In fact, over the past two decades children consumption of soda has augmented by 300%; where according to the OAC report, a 60 % increase in the danger for obesity has been found for every soda taken per day. Other packaged snacks, like fruit juice or sports drinks also contain high carbohydrate content. These drinks are responsible for overweight status of 20 % of children who at present have greater than average BMI as a result of excessive ingestion of beverages. The easily available foodstuffs in the environment, the result of marketing, and the stress of a lot of parents to conquer such influential forces contribute to childhood and adolescent obesity (Maniccia, Davidson, Manganello, & Dennison, 2011). In addition, there is a decline in the activity levels and an increase in the “normal” intake of highly processed “empty calorie” foods among children and the adolescents. Due to the mounting use of electronics like computers, video games, and television the overall children’s physical activity has reduced which is also measured as a casual agent of childhood obesity (Renzaho, Halliday, & Nowson, 2011). Obesity is high among children and adolescents who watch television frequently, not only because of the little energy that is used when viewing, but also due to synchronized eating of high-carbohydrate snacks. This inactive lifestyle is also tied to reduction of physical education in schools. The OAC asserts that in the past, physical education was a federal requirement, but at present only 8% of elementary schools and below 7% of middle schools and high school in America adheres to this requirement. According to OAC studies, genetics in the form of both genetic predisposing and series of activities within families is responsible for about 5-25% of the obesity risk. The obese risk is higher amid children belonging to two obese parents. Genetically, obesity results from the hormonal or genetic defects such as hypothyroidism or Cushing’s syndrome. However, parents also present tortuous modeling of food intake and exercise behaviors. Studies have shown that, one half of elementary school children do not do vigorous exercises. Similarly, with the introduction of processed food, parents are implementing bad nutritional choices for their families (Van Cauwenberghe et al, 2010). Socio-Economic Status (SES is another factor contributing to obese in children. studies have shown that, when parents earn low income the risk of their children being obese is high. Lower socio-economic status (SES) families prefer processed food containing higher carbohydrate and fat content. This is because it is cheap and easily accessible and easy to prepare (Renzaho, Halliday, & Nowson, 2011). The most affected persons are single parents, professional or poor mothers, and workaholic parent. Moreover, parents of lower SES are usually unable to pay their children’s extracurricular activities. This results in low childhood physical activity as compared to families with higher SES. SES is also associated with education level of parents; lower SES signifies low educational level. Parents with small or who lack admittance to learning information on nourishing food choices or the significance of physically active standard of living will not pass these benefits to their children. Evidence in the development of obesity is increasing. Sadly, lower parental SES and educational levels are some of the contributing factors (Atkinson, & Macdonald, 2009). References Atkinson, R.L., & Macdonald, I. (2009). Pediatric Highlights' fifth anniversary in the International Journal of Obesity. International journal of Obes , 33 (1)1. International Association for the Study of Obesity (2005). International journal of obesity. Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. ,4 (3) 67-89. Maniccia,D.M., Davidson, K.K., Manganello, J.A, & Dennison, B.A (2011). A meta-analysis of interventions that target children's screen time for reduction. Pediatrics , 128 (1) 193-210. Renzaho, A.M., Halliday J.A., & Nowson, C. (2011). Vitamin D, obesity, and obesity-related chronic disease among ethnic minorities: a systematic review. Nutrition , 27 (9) 869-879. Van Cauwenberghe E., Maes, L., Spittaels, H., Van Lenthe, F.J., Brug, J.,Oppert, J.M., & Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2010). Effectiveness of school-based interventions in Europe to promote healthy nutrition in children and adolescents: systematic review of published and 'grey' literature. Journal of Nutrition , 103 (6) 781-797. Read More