Media and Power - Literature review Example

Media and Power Student’s Name Subject Professor University/Institution Location Date Napoleon Bonaparte is quoted as having said that four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a thousand bayonets. A bayonet is a sword that can be fitted in the muzzle of a rifle. It may then be used to fight while it is in that position thus turning the rifle into kind of a spear. In essence what he meant was that newspapers wield so much power even when compared to other weapons of warfare that may be used. This paper intends to evaluate whether the media is powerful as suggested by Bonaparte and to what extent that is true. In this case power shall be taken to imply access to resources that are valued socially such as status, wealth, income, knowledge and force. ( Shirky 2011). The power of the media is generally persuasive and symbolic. This means that the media has the potential to control, to a certain degree the minds of those who view or read though it may not control their actions. Though the media may not have the ability to control the people that use it physically, it is capable of controlling their opinions, beliefs, knowledge, intentions and plans. However, sociological and psychological evidence has suggested that despite pervasive symbolic power that the media has, the audience generally has some degree of autonomy as well as independence and is thus able to engage actively instead of passively when it comes to the use of materials on the media. This means that despite the symbolic power some media users are capable of resisting the persuasion. The control is only effective when the media users are not aware about it.( Colliander and Dahlén 2011). Access Generally, power is based on special access to social resources that are valuable. The same is applicable for access to mass media. Hence, in information societies, one important condition of social power is the control of the means of the mass media. The average person uses the news media but generally does not have a direct influence on the content of the news and is also not a major actor of the news reports. Elite groups and institutions on the other hand have more access to public discourses and communication events. If the media is able to control access to the discourse of elites, they may be dependent on the media for them to exercise their power. This will in turn make the news media to become institutions of power of the elites. (Elefant 2011). There are many forms that access to discourse may take. Social actors that are more powerful are likely to control discourse by selection of participants, agendas, language chosen, style and other characters of talk and text. In essence, they are determining who may say, what they may say, about who they may say and how they may say it. The social power that a group has is therefore directly related to how much discourse genres and properties they have under their control. The social power that institutions and elites have is only effective if their discourses have influence. Therefore, control of discourses of important matters such as court trials, board meetings and government sessions is a show of power because of the importance of such discourses since they are able to affect the lives of a lot of people seriously. Public discourse is able to affect the minds of a large number of people. This means that the degree of access to the media is also an indicator of the degree of power. ( Ali 2011). Social Cognition and Influence Access to public minds does not necessarily imply controlling those minds. The public has the freedom to participate in the use of the messages that are displayed in the media. It is also capable of refusing to change its mind so as to think along the lines that those in power wish them to. Understanding The people that read a news report first ought to understand the words that are used therein. They are also expected to have an understanding of words that are rather technical like those used in science, management and politics. Apart from this, they are expected to have background information. A report concerning the Gulf War makes the assumption that the reader has some general information concerning the Middle East geography, wars, earlier historical events , international politics and much more. This implies that if the public lacks education, it shall seriously limit the way that the news is understood. Therefore, the media may be powerless in this case as the users are not able to understand the information relayed to them. (Hopmann, Vreese and Albæk 2011). Models A model in this case refers to a representation of an experience in the mind: an event people have witnessed read about or even participated in. Every time people read a report , they make a new model of the event in their mind or they update the model that already existed in their minds. Hence, understanding a report in the news implies that the reader is able to make a model of the event which the news is all about. This model is likely to include the opinion of the recipient of the news. Although this model represents the subjective understanding of the event by the reader, it is likely to be an embodiment of some instances of knowledge that is socially shared. This knowledge and the attitude that the social group that he has determines the model of what he shall read. (Boyle and Haynes 2009). Journalists do have a model of every event in the news. The reports they make will be done in such a way that the reader is likely to form a model that is similar to what they have. In this way the media is capable of controlling the public. One way of influencing a model’s structure, and in turn influencing how the news event is understood, is by manipulating the important information. This may be done by displaying it in such a way that it is more or less prominent in the news, photographs, headlines or leads. If the journalist or the elite sources do not want much attention paid to a news event, they ensure that the information is not very prominent or it lacks altogether in the news report. News are able to deemphasize or to emphasize the consequences or causes of events in news. An example is the disturbance that occurred in Los Angeles in the year 1992. Depending on the motive of the reporters racism may not be considered as a major factor but one may focus on the criminal character of the black youth involved. In this case, the models of the readers are swayed towards that direction. Knowledge If how news is understood is dependent on knowledge that is shared socially, controlling such kind of knowledge is likely to control understanding albeit indirectly. For instance, if the news media and political elites that have access to knowledge and they do not give detailed information in regard to the interests of the USA in the Middle East, the knowledge of the reader and the understanding of the news concerning the Gulf war is likely to be shallow. It is in the best interest of the elites that the public has minimal understanding in matters where they have a stake. They might as well marginalize the radical media or the opposition so as to ensure that minimal information is disseminated to the public. (Andrejevic 2009). Attitudes and Ideologies The control of knowledge is a key element when it comes to controlling discourse understanding. Beyond knowledge, we have attitudes. These are opinions that are socially shared. The control of knowledge is meant to influence understanding while the control of attitude is meant to influence evaluation. Accepting war against Iraq or Cold War on the Communist people largely depends on how it is justified. This is dependent on how the enemy is portrayed in the news. The way the actions are expressed in the news is likely to shape the attitudes that people have. After important patterns of knowledge, ideologies and attitudes have been established firmly because of repeated reporting in the news and other forms of mass discourse, they will have a huge bearing on how people evaluate the events. (Diga and Kelleher 2009). Racism and the Press The media can play a role in the ensuring dominance of a race over others. The persuasive power that the press has is effective especially if what is reported is consistent with the interests of a majority of the readers. This especially holds in nations like USA and the European countries. Analysis of affairs that deal with ethnicity exhibit a great alignment of the media with the white elites. The media has played a major role to ensure that things remain as they are. A case in point is the media in Serbia. The fierce nationalism stories that are reported fueled aggression against Croatia. In Rumania the media played a major role in incitement of the public against the Jews and the minorities from Hungary. The rightwing press also covers the issue regarding immigrants in a xenophobic manner. (Graber and Dunaway 2014). News Structures Analysis of topics covered in the media shows that the news covering ethnic affairs focus on a few issues. These are: crime, violence, relations between races, cultural differences and immigration. The issues are covered as problems or threats. Immigration is hardly going to be shown as a boon to a country that does not have adequate workforce willing to do menial jobs or even as a boost to curb decline of the population of the youth. Rather, it is shown as a kind of invasion or a wave that threatens the native populace. Crime, especially by the blacks is associated with violence, mugging, prostitution and various kinds of threats to the whites. Young people from Morocco will be shown in the press when a report shows that they have participated in street crime but a report showing that they are barred from gainful employment in Netherlands is hardly going to make headlines.( Williams andCarpini 2011). Recent Example Quite recently, the president of the United States had gone to offer apologies to the family of an American Journalist, James Foley. This journalist had been beheaded by a group of militants. He is said to have held back his tears while consoling the bereaved family. However, after that incident, he went to play golf. He was seen to be in a very jovial mood. After that, he received so much criticism from the media until he had to address “ Meet the Press”. He admitted that he had not anticipated that his actions would have been taken in that context. He accepted that at times he does not carry himself in a manner that his office demands but he said that he was committed to serve the interests of the American people. This shows that all forms of media including the social media are very powerful. Conclusion From the above it is clear that the media is a powerful tool. It can be used for the right purpose or for a vile purpose in which case the consequences are rather unfortunate. It is against this background that it is important that those who have anything to express in the media ought to exercise due caution in terms of how they express it to avoid unnecessary chaos. On the other hand the owners of the media outlets have the responsibility of ensuring that they report fairly and truthfully. As it were four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a thousand bayonets. Bibliography Ali, A H 2011 Power of Social Media in Developing Nations: New Tools for Closing the Global Digital Divide and Beyond, The Harv Hum Rts J, 24, 185. Andrejevic, M 2009 iSpy: Surveillance and power in the interactive era University of Kansas. Boyle, R, & Haynes, R 2009 Power play: Sport, the media and popular culture Edinburgh University Press. Colliander, J, & Dahlén, M 2011 Following the fashionable friend: The power of social media-weighing publicity effectiveness of blogs versus online magazines Journal of Advertising Research, 511, 313-320. Diga, M, & Kelleher, T 2009 Social media use, perceptions of decision-making power, and public relations roles Public Relations Review, 354, 440-442. Elefant, C 2011 Power of Social Media: Legal Issues & Best Practices for Utilities Engaging Social Media, The Energy LJ, 32, 1. Graber, D A, & Dunaway, J L 2014 Mass media and American politics CQ Press. Hopmann, D N, de Vreese, C H, & Albæk, E 2011 Incumbency bonus in election news coverage explained: The logics of political power and the media market Journal of Communication, 612, 264-282. Hopmann, D N, de Vreese, C H, & Albæk, E 2011 Political scandal: Power and visability in the media age John Wiley & Sons. Shirky, C 2011 Political Power of Social Media-Technology, the Public Sphere Sphere, and Political Change, The Foreign Aff, 90, 28. Williams, B A, & Carpini, M X D 2011 After broadcast news: Media regimes, democracy, and the new information environment Cambridge University Press. Read More

The social power that institutions and elites have is only effective if their discourses have influence. Therefore, control of discourses of important matters such as court trials, board meetings and government sessions is a show of power because of the importance of such discourses since they are able to affect the lives of a lot of people seriously. Public discourse is able to affect the minds of a large number of people. This means that the degree of access to the media is also an indicator of the degree of power.

( Ali 2011). Social Cognition and Influence Access to public minds does not necessarily imply controlling those minds. The public has the freedom to participate in the use of the messages that are displayed in the media. It is also capable of refusing to change its mind so as to think along the lines that those in power wish them to. Understanding The people that read a news report first ought to understand the words that are used therein. They are also expected to have an understanding of words that are rather technical like those used in science, management and politics.

Apart from this, they are expected to have background information. A report concerning the Gulf War makes the assumption that the reader has some general information concerning the Middle East geography, wars, earlier historical events , international politics and much more. This implies that if the public lacks education, it shall seriously limit the way that the news is understood. Therefore, the media may be powerless in this case as the users are not able to understand the information relayed to them.

(Hopmann, Vreese and Albæk 2011). Models A model in this case refers to a representation of an experience in the mind: an event people have witnessed read about or even participated in. Every time people read a report , they make a new model of the event in their mind or they update the model that already existed in their minds. Hence, understanding a report in the news implies that the reader is able to make a model of the event which the news is all about. This model is likely to include the opinion of the recipient of the news.

Although this model represents the subjective understanding of the event by the reader, it is likely to be an embodiment of some instances of knowledge that is socially shared. This knowledge and the attitude that the social group that he has determines the model of what he shall read. (Boyle and Haynes 2009). Journalists do have a model of every event in the news. The reports they make will be done in such a way that the reader is likely to form a model that is similar to what they have. In this way the media is capable of controlling the public.

One way of influencing a model’s structure, and in turn influencing how the news event is understood, is by manipulating the important information. This may be done by displaying it in such a way that it is more or less prominent in the news, photographs, headlines or leads. If the journalist or the elite sources do not want much attention paid to a news event, they ensure that the information is not very prominent or it lacks altogether in the news report. News are able to deemphasize or to emphasize the consequences or causes of events in news.

An example is the disturbance that occurred in Los Angeles in the year 1992. Depending on the motive of the reporters racism may not be considered as a major factor but one may focus on the criminal character of the black youth involved. In this case, the models of the readers are swayed towards that direction. Knowledge If how news is understood is dependent on knowledge that is shared socially, controlling such kind of knowledge is likely to control understanding albeit indirectly. For instance, if the news media and political elites that have access to knowledge and they do not give detailed information in regard to the interests of the USA in the Middle East, the knowledge of the reader and the understanding of the news concerning the Gulf war is likely to be shallow.

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