Media and Terrorism - Research Paper Example

Media and Terrorism Table of Contents S.No Title Page No I Abstract 2 II Literature Review 3 III Research Questions and Hypothesis 12 IV Methodology 13 V Results 14 VI Discussion and Analysis 16 VII Limitations 19 VIII Future Research 20 IX References 21 I Abstract Media coverage on terrorism has been proved to be a great threat as it very often fosters terrorism by providing terrorists with undue publicity which helps them to accomplish their goals more easily. Studies have shown that media coverage on terrorism permeates fear, fright and anxiety among the target group and that it adversely affects the very economy of nations. Terrorist groups prefer always to be a part of the headlines of the media since they want to propagate their goals and ideals to the society or the targeted group. This paper seeks to explore the various effects of media coverage on terrorism. The paper resorts to a qualitative research methodology that makes use of content analysis as its primary tool. The literature review part of the paper deals with the various factors associated with media coverage on terrorist activities. The findings of the study demonstrate that media coverage on terrorism has got more of disadvantages than advantages. However, the implications of the research also make it clear that media can effectively be used as tool for counter-terrorism. II. Literature Review There have been a lot of studies and researches made on Terrorism and its social, economic and political impacts. Terrorism, a curse on human race, is a global phenomena and it has no boundaries. As terrorism is highlighted by the media, it is interesting to have a look in to the relationship between media and terrorism. Media can be considered as the bread and butter for terrorism as it helps in giving a world-wide coverage on terrorist acts and thereby achieving their objectives and spreading their messages. Even a localized terrorist attack, celebrated by media gets coverage all over the world and thereby the responsible terrorist group gets benefited. In this regard, it becomes relevant to discuss the impact of conventional media like news papers and television, as well as new generation media like internet on terrorism. In fact one can observe a give and take relationship between media and terrorism as both gets benefited on the other. The success of a terrorist act is merely dependant on the coverage given by the media and it can be stated that without getting a widespread publicity, terrorists cannot achieve their goals and objectives to its fullest. On the other hand, media also gets benefited by terrorist acts. It helps the media to improve on their viewer-ship for a TV channel, or an increase in the number of copies or subscriber-ship for a news paper which is the ultimate aim of some of the media, while some others stand apart. It is true that media makes use of terrorist acts but it is not essential part for a media for its existence. As far as media are concerned terrorism is only one among different global issues to be discussed. Here comes the importance of the dependence of terrorism on media and it is relevant to discuss how terrorist use media in achieving their objectives in different ways. How and why do terrorists exploit media? Terrorist use media as a tool for spreading fear among the target group and for being recognised and noticed by the public and the government. Terrorist groups prefer always to be a part of the headlines of the media since they want to be familiar to the society or the targeted group. They wish to prove their presence and strength to create fright among the targeted group or the government through their activities. So they structure their operations in such a way that the level of destruction is intensive enough to grab the attention of the media and the public quicker because media is always looking for a striking issue and it may result in even a favourable decision making from the part of the government. (Lockyer, 2003, p. 6) Terrorist prefer the recognition of their motives by the media. They want their message to the public is conveyed and the causative factor behind an attack is revealed through the media. There were cases in which media were compelled to put out the motivations of certain terrorist groups. But in most cases an attack carried out itself expresses the motive. In some cases media can give even a positive tint to the motive behind a terrorist action. Terrorists are very well aware of the fact that their motives will be discussed without pressurising the media for a deliberate conversation on the causes behind an attack (Lockyer, 2003, p.8). Another objective of the terrorist is to obtain admiration by the group for whose cause they claim to have worked. They want to explain their supporters that they are able to do things in favour of their followers and for their well-being and progress. They focus on attaining an element of sympathy too from them by stating that their concern towards the public is much higher than that of a government. An organisation which has a wide spread media coverage attains much sympathy and respect than another organisation with a lesser media coverage ( Lockyer, 2003, p.10) Terrorism, Media Coverage and Economy: Studies have shown that terrorism has a negative impact on the economy of the affected target group. Melnick & Eldor (2010) have conducted some remarkable studies on how terrorism affects the economy of nations through media coverage. The findings of the study proved that media coverage of terrorism causes economic damage to nations and that “the economic damage caused by terrorist attacks increases monotonically with the amount of media coverage” (2010, p. 963). The authors observe that terrorist activities are likely to reduce the GDP rates of the affected economies and that media coverage very often assists the terrorists to achieve their goals more easily. The case study conducted by the researchers on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange, which is the sole stock market operating in Israel, clearly demonstrates that terrorist attacks decreases share prices considerably as “if terrorist attacks negatively affect the expectations of firms’ profitability and increase the cost of capital due to increased uncertainty” (Melnick & Eldor, 2010, p. 964). For the purpose of the study the researchers collected 3045 articles published in 2002 in Israel’s major daily newspapers and the findings of the study revealed that the number of articles published on the front page (FP), the number of articles with large headlines (TI) and the number of photographs published (PI) on the dates of the terrorist attacks and on the following two days have got great impact on the economy and the stock market of the nation. Thus, the authors argue that economic damages caused by terrorism increase monotonically with the amount of media coverage. Media and Anti-terrorism: The advancements in the field of telecommunication technologies have facilitated information exchange and have tremendously increased media’s impact on the social, political, cultural and international scenario. In this respect, it is imperative to analyse whether media has the potential to fight terrorism effectively. Yakovenko (2005), on the other hand, observes that the terrorists have made use of this immense potentiality of the information era to achieve their ulterior goals. The terrorists make use of the electronic media to grab public opinion: “it is through the media that they make their messages public; it is through the media that society learns about acts of violence” (Yakovenko, 2005, p. 96). It is therefore no wonder that many of the terrorist organizations are maintaining their own media, websites, radio and even TV stations. While the terrorists make use of media as an effective weapon to propagate their ideologies and goals, it should be borne in mind that media can also be employed as an efficient mechanism for counter terrorist measures. The author, thus, purports that there should be an increased level of cooperation between the state power and the media in fighting against terrorism. Media should undertake the responsibility of protecting the state’s interests and preserving the security of the state, while maintaining the freedom and independence of the press. It is also imperative that the journalist community maintain a sense of media self-control or restraint so that they due to provide undue coverage or publicity to terror-related subjects. This calls for the need to develop professional codes of ethics for journalists when they deal with terrorist activities and upheavals. As the author purports, “the trans-national nature of contemporary terrorism calls for concerted efforts on the national and international level by actively using the potential of international organizations to create new norms better suited to the challenges of the day” (Yakovenko, 2005, p. 98). Many nations and international organizations such as EU, OSCE, UNESCO, World Media Congress, and NATO have formulated clear cut legal norms and moral-ethical standards by which the media can guard themselves against terrorist operations. The author concludes his article by emphasising the necessity to form a single anti-terrorist front worldwide that can coordinate the efforts of nations and international bodies to combat terrorism. Religious Terrorism, International Islamization Terrorism, and Media: International Islamization Terrorism (IIT) that unifies the terrorist activities of Hizbullah, Islamic Brotherhood and Jihad Organizations has been proved to be a major threat to world nations. In this respect, Schbley observes that the terrorists’ appeal to their followers or believers to “fight in the name of Allah may be misunderstood, misperceived, or misinterpreted” (Schbley, 2004, p. 209). Thus, International Islamization Terrorism focuses on Muslim nations and tries to unite the Muslim community to fight for Jihad and today they are operating under the charter of Al-Jihad al-Islami known as the Islamic Holy War. Al-Manar, Hizbullah’s TV station which was limited to broadcasting only in the Arab World before the 9/11 has got considerable number of audiences not only in the Islamic world but also in Europe, Australia and the United States. Global Media and the War on Terrorism: Johnson (2003) argues that the Western concept of journalism and mass communication that see the Arab media as supporting terrorism only represent the views of the Western society. While the Western media has justified the war on Iraq and Afghanistan as attempts to fight terrorism, it is a fact that the media owned and propagated by the Muslim community that favour terrorism offers a reverse perspective. Due to the increasing rate of terrorist upheavals globally, the world nations have joined together under the United States of America to wage the war on terrorism. Lipschultz (2003) unearths the relationship between the press and the government in the campaign against terrorism in the face of complex world events, technological developments, globalization and conflicting values and ideologies. The author holds that media has a pivotal role in the global war against terrorism. Nossek (2008), in this respect, purports that journalists tend to “change their ritual of news coverage when dealing with exceptional terrorist attacks; they abandon their usual normative professional frame that encompasses such activities as critical scrutiny of governmental actions, and assume a national-patriotic coverage frame that seeks to re-establish normality and restore order” (Nossek, 2008, p. 313). Thus the authors repudiate the argument that journalists in their attempts to condemn terrorist activities in fact reinforce the terror event. On the other hand, the researchers hold that journalists while reporting terrorism acts as patriots who try to wipe away messages terror, dread, and alarm and try to build a feeling of solidarity, partnership, and stubborn endurance against the terrorist threat (Nossek, 2008, p. 313). Media Coverage of Terrorism as a Trauma: Slone & Shoshani (2010) observe that media exposure to terrorism often creates a lot of stresses, anxiety and anger. Very often, media acts as a facilitator rather than a deterrent force of terror and intimidation which have been proved to be the major objective of terrorist activities. Thus, this indirect victimization from media exposure to terrorism needs to be analysed and this also calls for the need to design effective interventions that better prepares the indirect victims of terrorism to cope up with trauma and associated risk factors of post terrorist media coverage. The study conducted by the researchers showed “the power of primary intervention to alleviate state anxiety produced by media exposure to terrorism in low-intensive conflict” and secondary therapeutic strategies should be approached with caution in view of their potential for immediate damaging effects” (Slone & Shoshani, 2010, p. 447). Slone, Shoshani & Baumgarten-katz (2008) also have conducted some remarkable studies on the various adverse effects of television broadcasts of terrorism on viewers’ anxiety and according to the authors the participants (72 young Israeli adults who were aged between 19-28) were much more affected by media representations of terrorism than by political violence in the nation (p. 244). The participants in the study were exposed to both violent political life events and violence via terrorism and the results of the study showed that the participants were better equipped to cope up with the stress and anxiety caused by political life events rather than exposure to terrorism through media coverage. In the same way, Shoshani & Slone (2008) deal elaborately with the emotional and attitudinal impact of media coverage of terrorism on the audience. The researchers conducted an empirical study on 300 Israeli adults who were randomly shown terrorism or violent non-terrorism broadcasts. The amount of anxiety, anger, stereotypes, and enemy perception displayed by the participants were measured before and after subsequent media exposure. The results of the study clearly demonstrated that there was “higher levels of both emotional and attitudinal measures consequent to the terrorism versus non-terrorism media exposure” (Shoshani & Slone, 2008, p. 627). Role of US media in the Iraq war: It is also worthwhile to analyse the role of the US media in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. Douglas M. Mcleod has shown a thorough understanding of the role of American news media in supporting the US government and helping them out in the move towards a war in Iraq after the Al-Oueda attack on the World trade centre. He identifies two major functions of the press that is, “the media should provide a forum for competing ideas so that the public can make informed, intelligent decisions and they should play an active role in ferreting out the truth” (Mcleod, 2010, P.113) After the Al-Qaeda attack on September 11, the media somehow failed in performing any of these functions and their incorrect interpretations paved way for disastrous after effects. The American war in Iraq was a result of the allegations of Al-Qaeda connection and the possession of WMDs Iraq which was highlighted by the media. CNN and Fox news had a crucial role in spreading the news regarding the linkage between Iraq and Al-Qaeda and the ownership of WMDs due to their higher rating and viewership. But none of these allegations were proved true even after the war and American command on Iraq for six years. (Mcleod, 2010, p.117) Douglas suggests an ideal role that can be adopted by the media while handling conflicts or disputes, as that of a moderator. Mass media should consider the public who suffer the outcome of the conflict. Accurate presentation of perspectives and ideas need to be entertained and claims made should be authentic and presented with evidence. (Mcleod, 2010, p.137). It is also worthwhile to analyse how Ozturk regard the role of American media in permeating its views on terrorism after the September 11 attack. Ahmet Ozturk made an attempt to explore the state-media relationship in fighting against terrorism before and after the attack on 9/11 and different aspects and impacts of state’s control over the media. Up till the age of cold war the media studies literature were dominated by the authoritarian, the libertarian, the soviet and the social responsibility theories, collectively called as “four theories of the press” (Öztürk, 2009, p.43) Refreshed ideologies approaches and theories came in to existence as a result of the radical changes occurred in the internal as well as the international political scenario. After the attack on 9/11 the declaration of a global war against terrorism pawed way for striking changes in international relationships and the state started to put control over the freedom of communication and expression of the media so that they will proceed according to the interest of the state and help the state in attaining public support. Ozturk identifies the irrelevance of the traditional theories of press after the declaration of ‘the war on terrorism’ and the importance and existence of a mixed version of social responsibility and libertarian systems and he puts it in favour of the media ensuring their freedom of expression and communication. III. Research Questions & Hypothesis The hypothesis for the research is that even though media can effectively be used as a tool for counter-terrorism, it is evident that media coverage to terrorism only fosters terrorism by providing terrorists with undue publicity which helps them to accomplish their goals more easily. The hypothesis for the study also include that media coverage on terrorism negatively affects the economy of the nation and that it enhances traumatic experiences such as fear, stress and anxiety among the viewers. As such the research questions for the study consist of the following: 1. Does media coverage foster terrorism by providing terrorists with undue publicity which helps them to accomplish their goals more easily? 2. Can the Media help to fight terrorism? 3. Does the economic damage caused by terrorism increase monotonically with the amount of media coverage? 4. How does the Media contribute to the Global war on terrorism? 5. Does video coverage of terrorism cause fear, anxiety, anger, stress or trauma among the audience? IV. Methodology The researcher has resorted to a qualitative research approach for the purpose of the study. The study makes use of content analysis as its primary qualitative research tool as quantitative studies on the issue are rare to be found. As such the paper makes use of the available literature review on media coverage on terrorism and the researcher draws conclusions from the vast number of literature that are reviewed in the paper. Special efforts have been taken by the researcher to include authentic journal articles, web articles and newspaper reports on the issue. The content analysis of the paper deals with the various aspects of media coverage on terrorism and the common themes are discussed elaborately in the discussion and analysis session. However, the research methodology does not consist of any primary research designs and is limited to secondary resources only. V. Results The results of the study show that media coverage fosters terrorism by providing terrorists with undue publicity which helps them to accomplish their goals more easily. One can clearly observe that terrorism would not have become so widely discussed and sensational an issue if it had not received so much of wide media coverage. On the other hand, it is quite shocking to notice that the number of audience that pay heed to media that is owned and regulated by terrorist organizations have also increased considerably. Terrorism operates by spreading fear, fright and anxiety among the target group and in a way media coverage facilitates terrorists to achieve this primary goal of theirs quite easily. Secondly, the results of the study pinpoint the potential of media to fight terrorism. One can clearly understand that the effective use of media with discretion, professionalism and ethics can act as a strong form of deterrence against terrorist activities. For this, there should be national and international collaborations whereby terrorism can effectively be brought under control through effective and timely counter terrorist strategies and policies. Thirdly, the study shows that the economic damage caused by terrorism increases monotonically with the amount of media coverage. Media coverage of terrorism adversely affects a nation’s stock exchange and trans-national organizational and trade relations. This can have a very negative impact on the GDP rates of the nation and its international relations with other nations can also suffer from various such set backs. Fourthly, Media can contribute to the Global war on terrorism through international and trans-national collaborations and enterprises. Media should not only ensure their freedom of expression and communication but they also should demonstrate collective responsibility in the global war on terrorism. Another significant result of the study is that video coverage of terrorism causes fear, anxiety, anger, stress or trauma among the audience and as such it calls for the need to offer timely primary and secondary interventions for the victims. The governments need to take into account these post-traumatic experiences that accompany any terrorist upheavals worldwide. VI. Analysis & Discussion The discussion and analysis of the paper is undertaken under five subheads, each one answering the four major research questions under consideration. They are elaborated below: Does media coverage foster terrorism by providing terrorists with undue publicity which helps them to accomplish their goals more easily? Lockyer (2003) has rightly observed that terrorist groups are benefited by the media coverage in attaining their objectives in a quicker way. A terrorist act even if it is a localized one, attains a worldwide viewer-ship and attention as a result of the publicity given by the media. It helps terrorist to ensure the reach of their ideas to the targeted group in particular as well as to the public in general and attain their objectives faster. Similarly, the responsibility and ability of media to fight against terrorism was emphasised by Yakovenko (2005). Media can make use of their trustworthiness and acceptance among the public in taking brave steps against the blood shedding terrorist acts. Media can expose the after effects of terrorist acts, the sufferings of the victims and can thereby create a feeling against terrorism among the public. Can the Media help to fight terrorism? Researchers such as Yakovenko (2005) have elaborated on the potential power of media to function as an effective tool for counterterrorism. As the author has pointed out, the advancements in the field of telecommunication technologies have helped information exchange and have considerably enhanced media’s impact on the social, political, cultural and international scenario. Therefore it is imperative that governments and international governing bodies formulate effective strategies to combat terrorism. For this, it is essential that media undertake the responsibility of protecting the state’s interests and preserving the security of the state, while maintaining the freedom and independence of the press. It is also imperative that journalists maintain professional codes of ethics and international governing bodies such as EU, OSCE, UNESCO, World Media Congress, and NATO formulate legal norms and moral-ethical standards by which the international community can abide by to combat terrorism and all sorts of terrorist upheavals. How does the Media contribute to the Global war on terrorism? There is no doubt that media have played a crucial role in the current ongoing was on global terrorism. Researchers such as Johnson (2003), Nossek (2008), and Lipschultz (2003) have clearly demonstrated how media can effectively employed in the ongoing debates over the global war on terrorism. One should always keep in mind the fact that terrorism today is an organised crime and therefore it is necessary that combating or waging a global war on terrorism necessitates the use of all the technological and scientific developments in the filed of information sharing. World nations irrespective of their political systems, social and economic disparities need to stand united in the global war on terrorism and these calls for the need to have more meaningful international and trans-national relations that promote solidarity and partnership among world nations. Does video coverage of terrorism cause fear, anxiety, anger, stress or trauma among the audience? There have been many studies that emphasised on how video coverage of terrorism have created fear, anxiety, anger, stress or trauma among the audience. Authors such as Slone & Shoshani (2010), Slone, Shoshani & Baumgarten-katz (2008), and Shoshani & Slone (2008) have clearly pointed out the emotional, psychological and mental stress, strain, fear and anxiety that media representations of terrorism exert in the viewers. One should realise the fact that media acts more of as a facilitator rather than as a deterrent force of terrorism. The indirect victimization from media exposure to terrorism is equally important as that of its direct victims. This emphasises the need to offer post-terrorist primary and secondary interventions to the indirect victims of terrorism through media coverage. Studies have also shown that people are more affected by violence shown through media coverage than by violent political life events in the nation. Thus, the implications of the study clearly show that media coverage of terrorism has got more of disadvantages and demerits than its positive effects. V1. Limitations The main limitation of the study is that it does not employ any primary research designs. The paper is limited to secondary resources and the researcher has resorted to content analysis as the research tool. Similarly, the study does not focus itself on any particular terrorist organization or target group. In the same way, the results or findings of the study lacks complete authenticity and reliability as future researches are needed to verify and validate the research outcomes. VII. Future Research The present study has called for the need to have more in-depth studies on whether media coverage on terrorism acts as deterrence or a facilitator of terrorist activities worldwide. Similarly, the potential of media to act as an effective tool for counter-terrorism needs more of researches and studies. There should be more comprehensive and better organised counter-terrorism activities, policies and strategies that make use of the advancements of media and technology. All these point towards the need to have more in-depth future researches on the role and effects of media and media coverage on terrorism. IX. Bibliography Castonguay, J. (Summer 2004). Conglomeration, New Media, and the Cultural Production of the "War on Terror". Cinema Journal, 43(4), 102-108. Johnson, D.W. (Autumn 2003). The World News Prism: Global Media in an Era of Terrorism. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 80(3), 766-767. Lipschultz, J.H. (Winter 2003). The Media and the War on Terrorism. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 80(4), 986-988. Lockyer, A. (2003). The Relationship between the Media and Terrorism. Retrieved 17 Dec. 10 from the Australian National University website: http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/sdsc/viewpoint/paper_030818.pdf Mcleod, D.M. (2010). Derelict of Duty: The American News Media, Terrorism and the War in Iraq. MCLEOD, 13, 113-137. Melnick, R., & Eldor, R. b. R. (2010). Small investment and large returns: Terrorism, media and the economy. European Economic Review, 54, 963-973. Nossek, H. (2008). ‘News media’-media events: Terrorist acts as media events, Communications, 33, 313-330. Öztürk, A. (Fall 2009). The Case of the Press/Media in the War on Terror. Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 8.3, 42-72. Schbley, A. (2004). Religious Terrorism, the Media, and International Islamization Terrorism: Justifying the Unjustifiable. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 27, 207–233. Shoshani, A., & Slone, M. (2008). The Drama of Media Coverage of Terrorism: Emotional and Attitudinal Impact on the Audience. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31, 627–640. Slone, M., & Shoshani, A. (Fall 2010). Prevention Rather Than Cure? Primary or Secondary Intervention for Dealing with Media Exposure to Terrorism. Journal of Counseling & Development, 88, 440-448. Slone, M., Shoshani, A., & Baumgarten-katz, I. (July 2008). 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