Interpersonal Communication, Negotiation, Conflict Management - Literature review Example

Interpersonal communication, negotiation, conflict management and intercultural communication Student’s Name: Course Title: Instructor’s Name: Date: Interpersonal communication According to Hill, (2007), interpersonal communication has the following three characteristics: it must involve communication from one individual to another, it should also be a communication that is face to face and both the procedure and meaning of the communication reflects the independent physiognomies of the involved persons as well as their relationships and roles in a social setting. When two participants meet and communicate, this communication is referred to as interpersonal in that there is no use of artificial mediums such as telephone or radio. According to Bennett (2005), the use of artificial materials such as telephones has some specific characteristics that can have some implications for the communication. Hill (2007) further argued that lack of understanding the change that use of cachets during communication can result in misunderstanding of information. However, I should also be understood that this proposition does not involve situations where an individual is addressing an audience or group of individuals for example lecturing students in a lecture room. Brew & Cairn, (2007), also argued that interpersonal communication is always two-way where he advocated for the linear model to represent communication in a diagram. This means interpersonal communication involves messages flowing from sender to receiver along particular channels although they might be interfered in the way. In a business setting, interference can affect implementation of the intended message and this might result in conflicts within an organization. According to Brew & Cairns, (2007), exchange of messages only between individuals or group of individuals does not qualify to be interpersonal communication. It more importantly involves the creation and exchange of meaning. This is because what an individual says can be interpreted to give different meanings using a number of ways. The state of relationship between the people communicating or the past discussing can influence the message or meaning to the type of communication during interpersonal communication. Some other factors such as culture and age can also influence interpersonal communication thus message sent during communication must have meaning that people attach to a particular events. On the other hand, Hill, (2007) further argued that interpersonal communication is wholly or partly intentional. A good example according to Bennett (2005) is someone who has a measly face and could be unaware of it but other people can interpret it as sadness though the sufferer himself may be unaware. According to Brew & Cairns (2007), interpersonal communication is an ongoing process rather than a series of events and is also cumulative over time for example a remembered pain cannot be erased. Negotiation and communication According to Opresnik, (2014), negotiation is an interactive process whereby two or more parties stab to resolve differences, toggle arising issues and reach a mutually acceptable agreement. Mahajani, (2013) postulated that negotiation is a social skill in that it involves discussion of arising issues, cooperation and resolution of conflicts. An individual that negotiates to resolve a conflict must use empathy as much as possible because conflict resolution is influenced by the parties’ perception towards the negotiator. Past literature indicate that conflict resolution largely relies on mediators who in this case are the negotiators. A good example in a business setting is where a conflict within an organization arises between the management team and the workers. An independent team is required to negotiate so that they resolve the conflict which may affect the performance in the workplace. Mahajani, (2013) further argued that there can be a positional bargaining that negotiates from positions only rather than interests and hence, this is the best negotiation model in an organizational setting. Principled bargaining is the other negotiation model that is used to resolve conflicts between parties whereby negotiation needs to separate the people from the problem. Mahajani (2007) also argued that the purpose of negotiation is to reach an agreement though literature indicates that not all negotiation achieves this purpose. Some negotiations results in I win you lose, others results in I win you win, others result in I lose you win while other result in both parties losing. Past literature posits that negotiators should try as much as possible to find options that will satisfy both parties and should always use a common ground. Intercultural communication There are several definitions of intercultural communications. According to Piller (2011), intercultural communication is the communication that takes place between individuals from different cultures. Literature from several authors indicates that intercultural communication occurs when individuals who are influenced by varied cultural communities negotiate on messages of the shared meaning in interaction. Past literature postulated that intercultural communication only occurs when individuals from different nationalities communicate. In contrast to this argument, Knapp et al, (2007) argued that the notion of intercultural communication include communication between interreligious groups, interethnic, sexual orientation and even interregional communication. According to Trindis, (2008) intercultural communication are influenced by prejudice, values, language, rational behaviors in which individuals communicating draw and nonverbal behaviors. According to Maloof et al, (2006), individuals working in the same environment for example those who work in the same organization for a long time and are from different cultural background, their communication shift from intercultural to interpersonal. Sensitivity to intercultural factors in a business communication is very important in that some elements such as sexual orientations and nonverbal behaviors might be misinterpreted. Triandis, (2008) supported this idea arguing that flow of information from the management team to the workers might be interrupted due to misunderstanding caused by cultural differences. Piller, (2011) further argued that identity within a working environment is very essential in that one can have avowed making one to feel competent and at ease. Past literature also supports the ideas raised by these authors in that past research indicates that workers within a working environment are motivated when they realize that their culture is being appreciated in a working environment. Knapp et al, (2007) stated that for an individual from a different culture to perform well in an organization must undergo acculturation in that an individual is the one to adjust the behavior rather than forcing an established culture of an organization. On the other hand, Piller (2007) argued that intercultural communication can have a negative impact in a working environment due to ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism may result in misunderstanding in a working environment in that an individual might feel more superior to others making the others workers to develop a negative perception towards one individual from a different culture. Culture therefore has a lot of influence in in an organization and can either be positive or negative with those from high power distance cultures working with high status principals. Conflict management Holt & DeVore, (2005) defined conflict as a contest between people with opposing ideas, needs, values, beliefs or goals. The result of conflict within a business environment is inevitable but the results of the conflict are not predetermined. According to Holt & DeVore, (2005) conflict can emerge and lead to nonproductive results and in the other hand, conflict can be resolved and result in quality final product. Benett, (2005) posited that conflict management involves obtaining skills associated to conflict resolution, conflict communication skills, self-awareness and creation of structures of managing conflicts in a given environment setting. There are five models of conflict management within a given environment. The first model is compromising which include moderate assertiveness and moderate cooperation. Some literature define compromise as giving up more than you want while others define it as both parties winning. A good example in a business setting is when a manager gives an order to subordinates and when it becomes difficult to implement he/she find a middle ground that makes both parties to feel satisfied. The other mode of conflict management according to Holt & DeVore, (2005) is collaborating where by it involves high assertiveness and high cooperation. In a business setting, this involves creative solution to the conflict that would not be generated by a single individual. According to Maloof et al, (2006) this method of conflict resolution is used when the conflict permits the time and dynamism. A good example when workers and managers in a given organization are establishing initial parameters. Nonthreatening confrontation is the best method that can be applied in an organization since makes both parties feel recognized. The other useful mode of conflict management according to Holt & DeVore, (2005) is competing. This is high assertiveness and low cooperation. This mode is more appropriately used in organizations especially those carrying out their activities in a competitive environment. This is because this mode is used when quick action needs to be taken for example when the company if facing financial challenges and wants to reduce the salary of the workers. Holt & DeVore, (2005) further argued that when protecting the interest of a given organization, the management team can use rank or influence to manage the conflicts that arise. However, Benett, (2005) argued that debating is the best method that can be applied to make both parties satisfied in a business environment. The other common mode of conflict management is avoiding which involves low cooperation and low assertiveness. Most organizations that are not confident of the reaction from their workers when the conflicts arise leave the conflicting issues unresolved. Others may withdraw and give a sense of timing when the have made enough profits to resolve conflicts. References Bennett, J. M., & Bennett, M. J. (2005). Developing intercultural sensitivity: An integrative approach to global and domestic diversity. Brew, F. & Cairns,D. (2007). Styles of managing interpersonal workplace conflict in relation to status and face concern: A study with Anglos and Chinese. The international journal of conflict management, 15,27-56. Holt, J. & DeVore, J. (2005). Culture, gender, organizational role, and styles of conflict resolution: A meta-analysis. International journal of intercultural Relations, 29,170-198. Hill, A. (2007). Key themes in interpersonal communication: culture, identities and performance. Maidenhead, Open University Press. Knapp, K., Enninger, W., & Knapp-Potthoff, A. (2007). Analyzing intercultural communication. Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter Mahajani, M. (2013). Le[t]'s talk: negotiation & communication at the workplace. Ahmedabad, Jaico Pub. House. Maloof, V., Rubin, D. L., & Miller, A. N. (2006) Cultural competence and identity in cross- cultural adaptation: The role of a Vietnamese heritage language school. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 9:2, 255–273. Opresnik, M. O., & Opresnik, M. O. (2014). Hidden rules of successful negotiation and communication: getting to yes! http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&A N=800 267. Piller, I. (2011). Intercultural communication: a critical introduction. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press. Triandis, H. C., Brislin, R., & Hui, C. H. (2008). Cross-cultural training across the individualism-collectivism divide. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12, 269–289. Read More