Work Organization and Ergonomics - Report Example

Part C. 1) The component of Ergonomics of human machine model includes; workplace layout, environment, job procedures, and equipment. It can be summed up to this three areas that is; understanding the properties of human capacity (human factor science), application to understand the design, development and deployment of services and systems and the art of ensuring successful application of human factors engineering to a program. Human system interface technology deals with the human and other components including environment, jobs, organizational structure and hardware and software. As a practice we apply human machine system interface technology to analyze design, evaluation standardization, and control system. 3) Manual handling is involved with lots of risks and most causes musculoskeletal disorders which are impairment of the muscle joint bones nerves blood circulation and tendons. These are caused by repeated exposure to high or low intensity load over a long period of time. Automatic systems produce best performance possible within the machine design limitations, since it’s an optimized machine designed for human operation. The automatic system tends to unburden operators of routine calculation and intimate control but reduces rash decisions and blunders made by the operators. Mechanizing is much better than the manual operation since it increases productivity and other operational advantage. It also reduces riskier exposure to the operator and also reduces cost. 5) By installing an engineering control one is likely to prevent several damages that could have been caused by using a manual system. The engineering control could be workstation layout; proper .These could be an advantage to the operator. By imposing controls on administrations including rescheduling to reduce frequency of exposure of MSDs. Training operators on how to use the equipments provided prevents lots of injuries to workers. Designated coordinators could be of benefit to direct the workers when need be. Job assessments could also be benefit in assessing the amount of work done as compared to other times when the machines have not yet been changed. Personal protective equipment need to be provided to workers to prevent them from injuries resulting from lack of protective barriers. Properly selecting, adjusting and using of magnification systems are mainly associated with a decrease in low back and neck pain, mainly because these helps operators in ensuring that they maintain healthier working postures. Operators can make use of different techniques of reducing stress and as a way of reducing muscular tensions related stress. Operators can also perform specific exercises for the trunk and shoulder girdle to enhance the health and integrity of the spinal column; stretching exercises for the hands and head & neck; maintain good working posture; optimize the function of the arms and hands; and prevent injuries. Performed regular exercises have also been found to be an effective way of preventing MSDs (Di Martino & Corlett, 1998). Part D) 1) Static anthropometric data is the data that is obtained as the body maintains a static (fixed) position. They usually consist of dimensions of skeleton, between the centers of joints, or dimensions of contour, dimensions of the skin surface like the circumference of the head. On the other hand, dynamic anthropometric data is the type of data that is taken as the body is fully involved in some particular physical activities. Most of the physical activities involve the individual members of the body functioning in concert, that is, majority of the members are moved and this affects the relative position of these body members. 2) The “human-machine model” refers to the interaction that exists between a person and the machine as he/she uses it in a certain environment. Some examples of workstations and work place situations that depict the integration that exist in a person, machine and the environmental factors in this kind of a model include; - An automobile driver (operator) receives some inputs that are outside the automobile. These include the sounds and visible traffic cues, signals, and obstructions. The operator also receives some inputs from the display inside the automobile such as the speedometer, fuel indicator, and the temperature gauge. On the part of the operator, he will be making a continued evaluation of all these information and subsequently deciding on the best course of action to take. Eventually, the driver of the vehicle will translate the decisions he has made in order to take an action that is geared towards gaining the full control of the vehicle – he will in particular consider the steering wheel, the brake, and the accelerator. The driver will also influenced by other environmental factors such as noise, temperature and fumes. - When using a computer the user will be executing the tasks as directed by the automated software in-built in the computer. However, the operator will be reviewing the retrieved data to determine whether the information provided is in line with the set of instructions he previously input in the software. At the same time he will be attentive to any change in the prevailing environmental condition. Specifically he will be keen to note the audio noise from the computer and any other environmental factors that might be interfering with the system. 3) There are many methods of collecting data that are employed in anthropometric data. These include; “convex hull approach” The “convex hull approach” method is mainly used in finding the perimeter and the area in the dimensions that are collected. In finding the convex hull (lets say for a set of digital points)it first calls for the identification of four farthest points in those digital points. The next thing will be to find the “feature points” for the construction of convex-hull by making a trace of all points in the digital. Observation: in this method of anthropometric data collection, a person will be observed as he remains in a fixed position and while engaged with some activity then an estimate of the correct measurements of dimensions to suit his requirement will be determined. 4) General user population will refer to the dimensional measurement taken having considered an average person in the work station. A machine will be designed to suit the needs of an average person such that any user will achieve some level of comfortability while using it. On the other hand specific user population will characterize the dimensions and the measurement taken when the intended user is actually in the specific work station and also while he is engaged with some activities designed purposely for him in the workstation. When all these considerations have been taken the specific user will achieve the comfortability he desires. 5) The main stages involved in the ergonomic design cycle include both the reactive stages and proactive stages. The reactive stages include; - Identification of any opportunity which might need improvement. This may include health results, identification of the risk factors and the integration. -assessment of the ergonomic factors of risk and then prioritizing the tasks that needs to be improved. - building the solutions - implementing the prototype -Evaluation of the prototype. -Adoption of the solutions. The proactive stage involves: -using feedback from the previous designs and also plants. - Making use of the ergonomic-design-criteria and purchasing the guidelines. 6) The factors which affect the diversification of anthropometric data include the age, gender, race and ethnicity. In fact, in the case of human beings, the pattern of growth that is greatly affected by the different culture of the human beings will as well cause the observed variations in the human dimensions. Distance relationships will also affect the diversity of anthropometric data. For instance, some features related to the behavior of human beings which are associated with the territory on which human operate will be cultural. Notice that whereas the space that exist between any objects usually have a form, the space that exist between any persons will be kinetic. We can therefore say that the measures of territoriality of human beings usually vary in dimension as a result of the forces of their different cultural backgrounds. 7) The application of “static anthropometric data” only without the combination of “dynamic anthropometric data” in the definition of the requirements of human beings in the work station designs have several limitations. Among them include; -high variability: there will be significant variations as human will assume different sitting or standing posture from which they will usually have while performing their tasks. -measurements cannot be taken while an individual is dressed in his or her clothes. If the data have to be taken then it means inconveniencing the person. -not all the human population can be measured: this method is not applicable to all human as some may be hard to access. 8) There are some problems with the reliability and the validity of the collection of dynamic and static anthropological data since observing the behavior of human over a long time is a task that is time consuming and there is the possibility of the observer shifting his attention. The observer may also be biased in his observation and therefore make a record that cannot be relied upon and hence compromising the validity of the data collected. The recordings will not be a representative of the true measurement of dimensions. 9) Person Measurements Height (cm) Weight (Kg) Reach (cm) Person 1 165.0 70.5 47.0 Person 2 150.0 65.0 40.5 Person 3 130.0 47.3 35.5 10) When felling down some tree person 3 will be more stable on the ground as opposed to person 1 or person 2 who are taller than her. This means person 3 will be at ease while performing the task. Person 1 who has more weight (70.5 Kg) than person 3 (47.3 Kg) is more energetic and thus he can lift the power saw without exhausting himself so much. Person 1 has a more reach of 47 cm than person 3 (35.5 cm) and therefore he can hold the power saw at a safe distance while felling the tree. 11) When setting the work place standards there has to be a distinction between the general user population and the specific user population. If a workstation has been designed for a general user population then the output demanded of that person will be that of an average person. in this case some mechanisms will be put in place to adjust the design to suit that of the person using it in the mean time. If a workplace standard has been set for a specific user population then those workplace standards cannot fit or be used for any other person apart from the particular person. Very little complains are expected from this target population. 12) Advantages of suiting the individual to the task: - The person will perform the task fast and with ease - The quality of the work done will be outstanding - The worker is likely to be creative and innovative in the tasks he or she performs. Disadvantages of suiting someone to the task: The person will lack diversity in getting work done The worker will get used to the repetitive task and will not feel motivated in the long run since he / she does not face many challenges Suiting a person to the task will mean doing the same task now and again. Therefore, some parts of the body will be overworked and this will lead to wearing out of tissues over time. 13) A chalk board had been fixed on the wall. A distance well designed to suit the requirements for an average teacher. A short teacher entered into the classroom and realized that the chalk board was fixed at a distance she could not comfortably reach. With the help of some student she repositioned the chalk board to a suitable distance for her comfort. PART E 1) The major musculoskeletal principles related to an individual’s sitting position according to Taylor, et al. (2004) include: A person’s spine position: Jarring while in a sitting position can lead to spinal damage. The fatigue related to the loading of the static muscle: A fixed sitting position causes an increase on the static- loading on the muscles of the shoulder and back. It also reduces the flow of blood to a person’s legs and in turn leading into swelling as well as discomfort. This can be solved by taking frequent breaks. The impact on the muscles in relation to reduced supply of blood The impacts of having restricted movement on the neck and head The impact of, as well as on, a person’s posture. Impact felt on the various discs found between vertebrae: continuous pressure on the discs as a result of the spinal posture while one is seated can easily result into discomfort and fatigue. The various groups of muscles that are used to lift objects when one is seated as all the other body muscles cannot be involved (Sanders & McCormick, 1992). 2) Specific ergonomic design features a) Adjustable and non adjustable table Chair should fit the job and the height of the working bench or table. The height of the seat and back rest should be independently adjustable. The tilt of the back rest must be adjustable too. The chair should be designed in such a way that the worker has enough room for the legs under the working bench and is able to change leg position. The work chair should be in such a way that the worker is able to easily lean backward or forward. The feet of the worker should be in a flat position on the ground. If not so, the worker should be provided with a footrest. The chair needs to have a backrest to give support to the lower part of the back. Chair should slightly curve downwards at the fore edge Armrests should be removable to suit the worker’s preference. A breathable material should be used to cover the chair to prevent one from slipping off. b) Document holders and foot stools. It is important that document holes be adjustable to allow tilting or fixed onto a monitor and that they be on an arm that is counter balanced. This allows for the existing distance between the document and the worker’s eyes to vary to suit the worker. A number of swing arms are not adjustable but are in such a way that the documents are at screen height. Footstools should be in such away that they can be adjusted for tilt and height. c. Storage facilities for office and industrial based environments Where the facilities are accessed manually, the height of the accessed materalisl or those kept when one is standing need to vary from the height of the knees to that of the shoulders without any assistance. One should avoid placing items that are heavy on the bottom rawers or in areas above the height of the shoulders. Multilevel storage and stacking requires one to use a lift-truck. d. Non-adjustable and adjustable tables/benches Adjusting this equipment is highly dependent on whether the work is being done while one is seated, standing, with sit stand supports or stools. Most of the design features applicable to the equipment is similar to that of chairs as discussed above. The height, shape and tilt angle is important and highly dependant on the work type being done. It is important that thighs comfortably fit under the working table when one is seated (Taylor et al., 2004). 3) Checklist for analyzing a workstation in relation to ergonomic aspects Handling of materials: Transport routes be marked and kept clear. Use rollers or wheeled devices such as carts to move materials Move, lower and lift heavy materials using mechanical devices Hand tools: Have each tool with its own home Hold work items and materials using clamps and vices Safety of machines: Different controls should be made easy to differentiate one from the other Use display colors or marking to allow workers understand on what they need to do Design of workstation: Working height for every worker should be adjusted to the level of the elbow or just below it. Workers need to alternate sitting and standing while working Workstation and work equipment should be adjustable to ensure that the working station is safe and that occasional posture changes can be done while working. Lighting: Shield direct lighting to prevent direct glare. Premises: Cold or heat sources should be isolated or insulated. Noisy machines or machine parts should be covered or isolated Welfare facilities: Make eating areas, rest rooms and drinking facilities available as away of promoting employees’ well being and good performance. Create a place for workers to hold their training and meetings. Work organization: Ensure combination of tasks to make work more varied and enjoyable. Create small unfinished products stock between the various workstations (Di Martino & Corlett, 1998). PART F: 1) Manual handling is defined as any activity which requires the application of a force (however little) by someone in order to either lift, pull, carry, push or even hold, move or otherwise restrain another person, an animal or something. 2) The most common MSD (Musculoskeletal Disorder) include; Cumulative disorders – they are the commonest work related MSDs. A person is likely to suffer from these disorders as a result of frequent exposure to very high or low-intensity loads for long periods. Acute traumas- These MSDs include fractures which mainly occur at the time of an accident. They usually affect the neck, shoulders, upper limbs and back but may also affect lower limbs. These MSDs can ether be specific or non specific. 3. Explain the work effort framework of stress-strain-fatigue-injury. 3) The “work effort framework” may be generally considered as having four parts. These are the stress – the strain – the fatigue – and finally the injury. 4) Muscle ligament and tendon loadings can either be static or dynamic. Static muscle loading is whereby a particular part of a person’s body is held in a stationary (fixed) position. Whereas dynamic muscle loading is whereby a body is either moving any part of its own or moving any object. 5) Strength describes the “maximum force” that a certain part of the musculoskeletal system of a person will exert momentarily. On the other hand, endurance generally refers to the capability of the various muscles of a human to continue providing the necessary strain for the support of a load or carrying out an activity. 6) The basic principles of “lifting biomechanics” involve the identification of the following: - The ligament, the tendon and the muscle groups related to the specific activities - The way these groups are attached to the bone. - the pivot (fulcrum) point from which the bony-levers move, for instance, lifting using the back will involve the hip (as a fulcrum) while lifting using the leg will involve the knee as the fulcrum. The moment this has been ascertained, it will be possible to make measurement of the performance and the capacity of the lever system in performing, identifying problem regions and either developing good methods of using a body or providing another method, for example, using some mechanical help for lifting. 7) The following techniques for manual handling of loads and materials are the basic control strategies that should be used for reduction of risk exposure: - Implementing policies and appropriate procedural controls - Reduction or at the least elimination of situations where the associated risk is considered to be very high. - The formulation of very specific business-plan that targets the reduction of injuries. - Outsourcing the tasks that records very high instances of risks. - Before undertaking any handling procedure, the right foot and the left foot ought to be placed for some reasonable distance apart, one being forward of load. This will assist in the maintenance of a good balance. - Both knees have to be slightly bent first before the arms are lowered so as to set down or to lift the loads. In case the load is to be picked up at a level above the waist, the knees ought to be bent first and then straightened in order to give a momentum to a movement in upward direction. The back has to be straight all the while. -When lowering or lifting a load, both hands should hang “between the thighs” if possible, that is, and the load must be carried in very close position to the person’s body and the elbows should be at the sides but not held from human body when raising, lowering or supporting. -The head should be erect before lifting a load in order to keep a straight back while lifting. -offering specific training to the workers, for instance, they can be trained on a back-care programme. 8) The risk factors that lead to the development of MSDs (OOS) can be divided into physical factors, organizational and psycho-social factors, and the Individual factors. Physical factors: Force application, for instance, pulling, carrying, lifting, pushing, and using tools Recurrence of movements Uncomfortable and stationary postures, for example, with the hands above the shoulder-level, or extended standing or sitting confined compression of the tools and the surfaces Vibrations Either cold or too much heat Poor lighting, for example, may cause some accident which in turn will cause MSDs. Elevated noise levels, for instance, will cause the human body to shake Organizational and psycho-social factors: • challenging job, lack of ability to direct over the duties performed, and low-levels of autonomy • Lack of work satisfaction • Repetitive and also monotonous work that is done at a very high pace • Lack of assistance from colleagues, the supervisors and even managers Individual factors: Preceding medical history The physical capacity The age of a person Obesity Smoking habits 9) Some of the ergonomic preventive strategies that may be introduced to check the risk of MSD (OOS) include; • Avoiding MSD risks • Making an evaluation of the risks that cannot easily be avoided • Dealing with any risks right from the source • Suit the person to the task • Adapt to the changing technology • Replace any dangerous thing with an alternative that is safe or not as much dangerous • Developing a coherent general prevention policy which addresses the entire load on the human body • Giving the necessary group protective measures the priority over a single person protective measure. • Giving appropriate instructions to workers before they embark on any task (Norton and Olds, 1996). 10) Work performed in a general hospital that causes the occurrence of MSD (OOS): i. The tasks performed by subordinate staffs in a hospital laundry expose them to the risk of shoulders injuries and the lower back due to the forward bending in the attempt to lift the wet and the dry linen. ii. The nurses in the hospital have to hold the sick person firmly as they operate on them as some of them fear the exercise. They have to exert so much pressure at some point. iii. General cleaners at the hospital are at the risk of falling from slippery floor and may dislocate their limbs. iv. The doctors use a sharp syringe while injecting the patient and are thus exposed to the risk of injecting themselves with that sharp object. v. The cooks are faced with the risk of excessive heat as they go about their duties. 11) Manual handling problems in a hospital Restraining some patients from joining the long cue in their attempt to receive the services offered. The load becomes heavy and bulky, thus placing unfair burden on the worker. The load needs to be raised from the hospital floor and above the person’s shoulders. Some tasks involve recurrent repetitive lifting. There are some tasks which require awkward postures, for instance, twisting or bending. Sometimes it becomes hard to grip the trolley properly. Some of the tasks like general cleanliness is done on rough, damp, or sloping hospital floor surfaces. Very often you will have to perform some tasks under time-pressures and usually incorporating very few rest-breaks. Merits of introducing a lifting device to aid a manual handling problem A reduced exposure to vibrations; No call for adopting poor and controlled postures; Reduced monotony and also fatigue for hospital’s staff; Improvement in the productivity and performance of the hospital. Reduction in the instances for ill-health and injuries at the workplace Demerits of introducing a lifting device to aid a manual handling problem There is decreased overtime and overtime payments which does not go well with the workers. Introduction of a lifting device will mean that the workers will have to undergo some fresh training on the way of using the device The hospital has to incur extra expense in buying the lifting device. PART G.: 1) Parameters of the job –design structure Analysis of the task to be performed The knowledge and skills required to perform the task Prediction of the workload Job design Selecting, induction and the training of the employees. 2) The job-design structure concerns itself with issues pertaining to the interaction between the workers and the machines. However, ergonomics considers other necessary decisions that are also important in the job - design structure. For instance, the automation level, environmental issues, the energy sources and the kinds of persons, for example, people in sheltered-workshops, the fresh industrialized workers and also the people chosen through the affirmative action (Norton and Olds, 1996). 3) Ergonomic – design features for: a) Job rotation: Job rotation entails the changing of the jobs that are done by different people within a work-group in order to add variety in the job b) Job enlargement: Job enlargement entails equipping a worker with the necessary skills to perform many roles (jobs) that are important in the completion of a specific task. c) Job enrichment: Job enrichment usually involves addition of some higher responsibilities in a job including some tasks that were previously done by the supervisor. 4)The critical elements of good job-design structure: i. The person-machine interaction is at the optimum ii. The requirements of the worker is recognized iii. There exist some inbuilt factors that improve motivation iv. The tasks that a job requires are clearly defined and thus the skills required in its performance. v. The achievement or the performance is adequately recognized. vi. There is good integration of the work organization system within the enterprise. 5) Find an attachment of three job descriptions. 6) Good features: i. Predictability ii. Good control iii. Job satisfaction iv. Adequate participation in the production process Neutral features: i. The job – design lacks meaning ii. Boredom iii. Job insecurity iv. Little or no social support Poor features: i. Conflict, for instance, personality clashes, role conflict and poor inter - personal relations ii. A lot of work to be done iii. Responsibilities for others 7) Changes necessary for the improvement of the job – designs Role conflict can be reduced by matching the job (position) descriptions against the “changing demands” of work The management should adjust to reduce cases of under-work or overwork as the case may be. ‘Lack of meaning’ should be addressed by job enlargement and increased motivation to the employees Job enrichment can be used to establish the degree of work control by the worker. PART (G) Q.5) Three job description in the Capital Market Authority (CMA) 1) POSITION: Manager JOB TITLE: Internal Audit REPORT TO: Chief Executive Officer (CEO) LOCATION: Headquarter DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES · General review of Authority’s operational procedures, systems, practices and records so as to ensure compliance with laws, the regulations and policies and consistency with the Authority’s established objectives and goals; · Assessing the adequacy of systems and procedures and evaluating internal controls and processes, appraising the relevance, reliability and integrity of management, financial and operating systems; · Reviewing and developing auditing techniques and procedures for financial, procurement, operational systems, regulatory and management audit; · Developing an internal audit plan and providing assurances and appraising the economy and efficiency with which resources are employed; · Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of the Authority’s risk management processes and strategies and from time to time assessing the risk of the Authority; · Presenting audit information to the Audit, Risk Management and the Corporate Governance Committee of the Board as Secretary to the Audit, Risk Management and Corporate Governance Committee; · Giving guidance and leadership in strategic matters relating to internal audit; · Coordinating with the external auditor the external audit of the Authority SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES · Bachelor’s Degree in Commerce, Finance or other related fields; · Masters in Business Administration, or associated field; · Professional qualification of CPA or ACCA and CIA or an equivalent; · Be a “registered member of ICPAK”, or any other applicable professional body; · At least 8-years of relevant work-experience, four of which have to be at senior level in a highly regarded organization; · Hands-on-experience in either CAATS or Audit-Command Language; · Initiative and self-drive for very high quality performances, and team- player attitude; · Demonstrated and proven leadership, excellent communication and inter-personal skills; · High integrity; · Capability to maintain professional standing and keep abreast with the evolving trends in “auditing practices” through continuing professional education-programme. 2) POSITION: Senior Financial Analyst JOB TITLE: Financial Analyst REPORT TO: Assistant Manager LOCATION: Melbourne Branch DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Preparing schedules, reviewing and interpreting financial information and periodic financial statements of listed companies and market intermediaries aimed at securing compliance with capital markets rules and regulations; Reviewing applicable accounting standards and guidelines to assess the adequacy of information disclosed by issuers, licensees and listed companies; Participating in special projects related to accounting and reporting issues as requested; Coordinating the analysis of periodical financial statements of market intermediaries and listed companies to ensure continued compliance with the capital markets rules and regulations and in line with the financial reporting requirements as outlined by the IFRS; Reviewing of financial analysis reports submitted by new license applicants and issuers to determine compliance with regulatory provisions. QUALIFICATIONS, SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES A degree in Mathematics, Economics, Accounting, Finance, Actuarial Science or in a related field; Professional qualifications such as CFA, CPA or equivalent; At least three (3) years relevant work experience gained from money and capital markets or relevant financial organizations with a strong focus on analysis, compliance and market regulation. 3) POSITION: Investor Education Officer JOB TITLE: Investor REPORT TO: Assistant Manager LOCATION: South Wales Branch DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Identifying investors’ public information needs and information gaps; Designing and developing strategies for investor education including training materials such as brochures, posters, magazines and other publications; Implementing effective investor education or financial literacy programs through training workshops, seminars and presentations to the investing public; Assisting in conducting needs assessment and baseline surveys with the view to assessing the impact of investor education programs; Assisting in effective and prompt handling of enquiries and other general requests for information from investors and the general public; Engaging with partners to implement joint investor education campaigns. QUALIFICATIONS, SKILLS AND COMPETENCES Bachelor’s degree in either finance, communications, economics, business or other related field; Up to 2-years-experience in the capital markets or the financial services development; A superior understanding of Australian capital markets and the products and the services; Experience with “information dissemination”, public education and conducting guidance in all financial aspects; Outstanding report writing skills, excellent communication and inter-personal skills and the ability to multi-task. OTHER IMPORTANT SKILLS AND QUALIFICATIONS A professional diploma in either marketing or in education; Gifted in travelling mostly within AUSTRALIA and the COMESA region. References Norton, K. and Olds, T. (1996) Anthropometrica: a textbook of body measurements for sports and health courses. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. Sanders, S. & McCormick, J. (1992) Human Factors in Engineering and Design. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Taylor, G., Easter, K. & Hegney, R. (2004) Enhancing Occupational Safety and Health Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Di Martino, V. & Corlett, N. (1998) Work Organization and Ergonomics. Geneva: International Labour Office. Read More