Projects and System Theory - Literature review Example

Projects and System Theory Name: Institution: Lecturer: Date: Table of Contents Projects and System Theory 1 Table of Contents 1 PART I – Theory 2 The key fundamentals of systems theory 2 Defining a system 4 Two Versions of Systems Theory 4 Close systems thinking and cybernetics 4 Open systems theory 5 Systems theory in project management 5 PART II - PRACTICAL APPLICATION 7 Application of systems theory to a project 7 How the project systems is interdependent 9 Process 3: Development of best practices guidelines 9 Process 4: Developing sun protection awareness campaign 10 Matrix organizational structure 10 Six-sigma technique 11 How the external environment affects the project systems 12 Mass media 12 Human Factors 12 PART III – REFLECTION 13 Significance of systems theory to project managers 13 Conclusion 14 Bibliography 15 Appendix A 16 PART I – Theory The key fundamentals of systems theory Systems theory refers to the interdisciplinary analysis of systems with the view of explaining the principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all levels of growth (Ansari, 2004). Ansari (2004) points out that although the term is yet to be given a well-established and accurate meaning, it can be regarded as a systems approach, generalization of system science and specialization of systems thinking (Ansari, 2004). In any case, it is clear that the system theory is focused on the relationship of parts instead of on reduction of entities such as a human body into organs, tissues and cells. Indeed, the systems theory is centred on the relationship among the parts and how they function together as a unit. The property of a system is determined by the way in which the parts interact and how they are organized. The performance of the system as an entity may however be independent of the abilities of the elements. Ansari (2004) further explains that this approach is referred as a holistic approach towards understanding a phenomenon. Towards this end, it is conceivable that systems theory embodies a transdisciplinary study of a theoretical organization, within a phenomenon that is separate from its substance. In actual fact, it examines the principles or aspects that are prevalent to all entities and the different approaches that can be applied in describing them (Schoech 2004). The term “trans disciplinary” exemplifies why systems theory can be applied in various disciplines. In Ansari’s view, this is because the theory serves to provide a meta-language to address an issue despite the discipline or subject. Laszlo and Krippner (1997) support this notion in their assertion that the systems theory is indeed beneficial because of its potential to offer a transdisciplinary structure for concurrently normative and critical exploration of the correlation between human concepts and perceptions and the project outcomes. Hamilton (1997) posits that the major problems related to using systems theory is that it encourages the use of a broader view and disregards the handling of detail. Conversely, its major strength includes its ability to provide a single language for describing a phenomenon. Additionally, it provides a capacity to understand how organizations work. From the above analysis, it can be conveniently argued that systems theory is a general framework for inquiry. With reference to its application in the study of a project, it can structure out complex human and system interactions without having to reduce a perpetual phenomenon to the extent of individual stimuli (Lenenburg, 2012). Systems theory profits from the materialization of parallelisms in various disciplinary interpretations of reality and subsequently providing a platform for integrated investigation into the complexities of a project (Hamilton, 1997). Defining a system A system can be defined as an aspect in interaction or relationships. According to Laszlo and Krippner (1997), it is critical to distinguish a theoretical system from an empirical one. Theoretical system comprises a set of complex suppositions and concepts that have rational empirical reference and integration. Conversely, empirical system comprises a set of phenomenon that can be analysed and described using a theoretical system. Two Versions of Systems Theory Close systems thinking and cybernetics Closed system thinking was developed from the concept that systems elements such as planets behave with clockwork accuracy and revert to initial stable state of equilibrium. Cybernetics exemplifies the modern version of close systems thinking. It permits different disciplines to communicate about the problems that underlie their existence using a common language (Ansari, 2004). Open systems theory Open systems theory has been traditionally used as a general systems theory to delineate the main ideas and to distinguish the ideas from the closed system thinking. It is different from the closed systems thinking because of its relationship with external environment. For instance, it is more focused on responding to the threats that face the external environment of a system. Secondly, while the close system thinking has few variables, open system thinking is concerned with more complex interrelationships. Systems theory in project management The systems theory attempts to explain the dynamics and complex systems, many of which humans are involved. In a typical organizational scenario, project and project management can be classified as complex systems. In this case, the principles of systems theory can be applied to project management (Lenenburg, 2012). Complex systems sustain its existence and application through the interaction of its parts. The manner in which a certain complex system behaves is dependent on how the parts relate and interact. This concept is applicable in project management. A complex system with reference to a project management would have elements such as time, people, project manager, resources, customers, processes and communication. However, the manner in which these projects relate and interact is what makes them unique from each other (Lenenburg, 2012). Although the elements that make up the complex system do not have characteristics of the complex system, the whole characteristics of the system are referred as emergent properties (Ansari, 2004). Aside from managing complex projects, the systems theory enables an understanding of the dynamic nature of projects. Indeed, even as a project has various parts, each of these parts has a different state. Additionally, the different states can cause various connections. Since each part of the system influences the whole system in a different way, when one of the elements of a project is changed, there are always some side effects related to it. It is thus critical to understand that each element is integral to the existence of the whole scheme and changing it will have an impact on the outcome of a project (Lenenburg, 2012). The systems theory suggests that the complex system attempts to attain a state of equilibrium and subsequently resists any significant change (Ansari, 2004). This is since the parts are related and interact and their relationships and interactions define the properties of the system. However, when a change happens, it can be dramatic and sudden. In some cases, a small change in a key element can introduce dramatic impact on the whole system. This perspective also invokes the chaos theory (Ansari, 2004). In addition to the effects not being proportional to what triggers them, they may not be immediate. This means that there can be a considerable extent of time lag between the cause and effect. This can make it difficult to relate certain effect to its actual cause. PART II - PRACTICAL APPLICATION Application of systems theory to a project The research project of interest entails one involved in determining the use of social marketing theory in developing sun protection awareness campaigns against skin cancer. The study was essentially a collaborative project I did with two students at Wollongong University and some industry practitioners at the Cancer Council of New South Wales. The project demonstrated the value of collaborative research between university researchers and industry practitioners. The total cost of the project was $45,413.50. Majority of the funds was channelled towards 160 interviews, including compensation for interviewers overseas and for hiring sub-contractors and experts of skin cancer (see Appendix A). The project was scheduled to take 3 months, from January to February 2005. The project was to investigate the application of communications theory in social marketing and to establish the improvement of campaign outcome through intensive application of theory and research to marketing practice. The application used in the project included social marketing campaigns to promote sun protection. The project found that skin cancers could be prevented if the public were persuaded to protect their skins from the sun sufficiently. The project reviewed a wide range of campaigns from different countries to demonstrate the use of communication theory in social marketing practice. In compliance with the principles of market segmentation, the study was carried out with the major market segments within the New South Wales population. The project was innovative as it was the first ever extensive project aimed at investigating the extent in which academic theory of communication can be applied in practice in developing and implementing social marketing campaigns. Although several other studies had been done, they tended to concentrate their scope on the extent to which social marketing campaigns are consistent communications used in advertisement. Indeed, while researches had been earlier conducted to compare the sun protection policies of different countries, no comprehensive analysis had been undertaken to examine the communication campaigns used in sun protection. Even more innovative was the application of theory in the research practice. For instance, developing an experimental campaign was basically informed by theory, in addition to practice evidences of best practice and empirical evidences. Each process (system) in developing, implementing and evaluating the campaign was rigorously conducted through the application of guideline for best practices. The multidisciplinary team served to ensure that the entire campaign activities suitably utilised the practical and theoretical fundamentals of social marketing. The project consisted of four distinct processes (systems), each of which resulted to substantial outcome in improving sun protection awareness campaigns. The first comprised detection of the use of relevant theory in sun protection research. The process set off with a comprehensive literature search to discover all available research on the application of social marketing communication strategies in developing and conducting of sun protection campaigns. The second process involved an extensive review of current communication campaigns in Australia, UK, Canada and US that are targeted at intensifying sun protection awareness. The third process involved development of a comprehensive set of guidelines for developing and implementing sun protection campaigns anchored in findings based on application of theory in research (process 1) and application of theory in practice (process 2). The fourth process entailed development of a broad social marketing plan based on the guidelines developed in process 3, and specifically intended for the sun protection awareness campaign for The Cancer Council of New South Wales. How the project systems is interdependent The primary purpose of the project was to investigate the application of the communications theory in social marketing. Essentially, the four project systems (processes) were interdependent. While they may operate independent of the other, this may not ensure absolute efficiency of the whole system. In which case, the project processes systems mutually coexist in the whole system. The virtue of interdependence among the processes is clearly illustrated by process 3 and process 4. Process 3: Development of best practices guidelines Process three entailed developing a set of parameters for guidance on development and implementation of effective sun protection awareness. However, this process is dependent on process 1 (formative theory or application of theory in research) and process two (application of theory in practice). Basically, this process involved intensive consultation with experts in the field of skin cancer, sun protection and social marketing. This was to ensure that the set out guidelines or parameters are consistent with best-practices in social marketing. At the same time, it ensured that empirical accuracy of the messages to avoid unintended effects from communication. The collaborative nature of the project (whole system) ensured that the resulting guidelines correctly revealed the state of the art knowledge in marketing while at the same time ensuring that the guidelines are adaptive, usable and easy to understand. Process 4: Developing sun protection awareness campaign Process 4 is interdependent with process 3, which is in turn interdependent with process 1 and process 3 (as discussed above). At this stage, the researchers developed a comprehensive social marketing plan based on the guidelines developed in process 3. The plan was intended for the sun protection awareness campaign for The Cancer Council of New South Wales. The content of the plan included the best-practice guidelines. In addition, the plan extended to include the development of an actual promotion/advertising campaign that was based on the best practices communication. It included a comprehensive strategy for the action objectives and target audience segmentation, objectives of communication and position, execution tactics and creative ideas and lastly, the media strategy. Two management techniques/processes/tools Matrix organizational structure Matric organizational structure is suggested as the pertinent management process for the project based on its beneficial features for innovative projects that are complex in nature and which require maximal collaborations. It ensures that the systems work together efficiently. Matrix organizational structure coordinates projects in terms of the functional area while allowing each project to specialize on its particular area while aiming to achieve the corporate objectives (Kuprenas, 2003). Among the advantages of this project management technique include resource coordination, as it allows project managers and supervisors to focus on their areas of expertise (Lenenburg, 2012). It also allows the employees to specialise in areas of expertise. The management process ensures effective collaboration between the researchers or research team (Jones and Robinson). It also allows the inexperienced researchers to maintain regular contact with members of similar expertise, hence have the opportunity to develop skills. It also maximises communication channels, as employees have a regular contact with other members of functional areas, thus information and resources flow fluidly between their functional areas. The management structure also encourages flexibility since it allows flexible sharing of human resources across various projects. The structure also cuts costs while at the same time enabling the whole system to be more efficient (Kuprenas, 2003). Six-sigma technique Since the project involves systematic and successive stages that require intensive coordination of different interdependent activities, a relevant project management technique would be application of Six Sigma tool (Kim et al, 2007). Six-Sigma can bring about competitive enhancements of each system. It also integrates links of the processes and techniques. The key elements of Six-Sigma include allowing the participation of many people in the value chain, promoting use of technologies and encouraging participation of all employees and not a few experts. The Six-Sigma technique is hence essential for systematic process operation and for identification of areas that require process improvement. The processes include Process Definition, Process Standardization, Process Evaluation, Identifying Process Priorities, Process Execution and Process Measurement. How the external environment affects the project systems The project investigating the application of communications theory in social marketing is significantly affected by two external environmental factors. These include the human factors and the mass media. Mass media It is critical to observe that the mass media plays a vital role in the success of the project. Indeed, Process 4 of the project entails developing a marketing plan to include the development of comprehensive guidelines for developing and dissemination the communications campaign (Jones, 2005). However, this is susceptible to pitfalls since choosing some forms of media will seclude individuals who don’t use that kind of media. This problem can however be solved through effective media strategy such as undertaking a preliminary research to establish the forms of media that the target audience generally uses. Human Factors Process 2, which involves reviewing the current sun protection, campaigns is highly susceptible to human factors and behaviours. Since process 2 further entails reviewing the existing communication campaigns used in different environments such as Australia, UK, Canada and US, it is critical to note that people in different geographic regions or environments behave differently in response to communication message used (Jones, 2005). For instance, while some regions may appreciate social marketing, others do not. To mitigate these effects, the Open systems management process should be used. This is because it is applicable in such a scenario because of its relationship with external environment (Laszlo and Krippner, 1997). For instance, it is more focused on responding to the threats that face the external environment of a system. PART III – REFLECTION Significance of systems theory to project managers From a personal reflection and based on the project that investigated the application of communications theory in social marketing, several insights into how systems theory can help a project manager are developed. First, it is critical to note that Systems theory enables a project manager to coordinate and control complex projects. A case in point is coordinating the four processes towards realising the objectives of the entire project. This is consistent with the systems theory’s postulation that the characteristics of a complex system are in actual fact the characteristics of the whole system. I further noted that aside from managing complex projects, systems theory enables a project manager to understand the dynamic nature of a complex projects and how they are interdependent or correlate. It is significant to note that the use of systems theory as a framework implies that the management control systems are viewed more like biological organisms that co-exist in constant interaction and relationship with their environments. Towards this end, it can further be argued that systems theory enable management control systems to meet the needs of their environments. Additionally, when systems theory is applied to management, it would be critical that these systems show purposeful or teleological behaviour. This perspective can indeed by embedded in the definition of project management, when defined as control and coordination of resources to attain strategic objectives in order to avert unintended consequences. Conclusion In conclusion, as the strategic role of systems theory in projects management cannot be undermined. Apart from offering an insight into the management of complex project, it enables an understanding of the dynamic nature of projects. Since a typical project has a range of parts, each of these parts has a different state and role. Additionally, the different states can cause a various connections. Since each part of the system influences the whole system in a different way, when one of the elements of a project is changed, there are always some side effects related to it. It is thus critical to understand that each element is integral to the existence of the whole scheme and changing it will have an impact on the outcome of a project. Based on this argument, there is need for integration of systems theory to understand how the project system can be effectively integrated to attain the overall goals of the project. Indeed, the theory can help integrate, relate and interact different processes involved in the project system. This is because systems theory embodies transdisciplinary study of the conceptual of theoretical organization of a phenomenon separate from its substance. It also serves to examine the principles or aspects that are prevalent to all entities and the different approaches that can be applied in describing them. Bibliography Ansari, Shahid, "Teaching Note Systems Theory and Management Control," Last modified, Virginian University 2004, http://faculty.darden.virginia.edu/ansaris/Systems%20Theory%20and%20MCS-TN.pdf (accessed 17 August 2013) Hamilton, Albert, “Management by Projects: Achieving in a Changing World” (London: Thomas Telford, 1997), 34 Jones, Peter and Peter Robinson, Operations Management (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). Jones, Sandra, Dob Iverson, Andrew Penman and Anita, A Practical Application Theory: Using social marketing theory to develop innovative and comprehensive sun protection campaigns (Wollongon: University of Wollongong, 2005) Kim, Jeong, JeMin Bae and SungWong Choi, "Process Management Technique Using 6 Sigma Tools and PSP," International Journal of Software Engineering and Its Applications 1, No. 1 (2007) 1-18 Kuprenas, John "Implementation and performance of a matrix organization structure," International Journal of Project Management 21 (2003) 51–62 Laszlo, Alexander and Krippner Stanley, “Systems Theories: Their Origins, Foundations, and Development, “Last Modified 1997, Syntonyquest.org http://archive.syntonyquest.org/elcTree/resourcesPDFs/SystemsTheory.pdf (accessed 17 august 2013) Lenenburg, Fred "Organizational Structure: Mintzberg’s Framework," International Journal Of Scholarly, Academic, Intellectual Diversity 14, No. 1 (2012) 1-3 Schoech, Cussn "Concept Paper: Systems Theory," last modified, 18 August 2004, http://wweb.uta.edu/faculty/schoech/cussn/courses/5306/coursepack/theory_systems.pdf (Accessed 17 August 2013) Appendix A Table 1: Project Budget for research on influence of communication theory on sun protection campaigns against skin cancer: Budget Item Amount ($) Sub-Total a Personnel Stipend & Expenses for Sub-Contracted Foreign Interviewers: 80 interviews @ average of approx. $250/interview 20,000 Project administration/coordination and data analysis for duration of the project. 18,425 Total Personnel Expenses 38,425 b Travel Domestic Travel (Transportation, Accommodation, Meals) • 4 Domestic Trips Requiring Travel Overnight to Interview US-Based Respondents (1 interviewer per trip) Estimated average for the 4 trips: Airfare: $350 . Lodging: 1 days: $190 . Food & Misc: $175 2,860 Total Travel Expenses 2,860 TOTAL EXPENSES 41,285 Overehead Cost: @ 10% 4128.50 TOTAL AMOUNT 45,413.50 Read More