Projects & Systems Theory - Coursework Example

Projects & Systems Theory Affiliation: Introduction System theory is an interdisciplinary study of systems with the aim of identifying principles applicable to all types of systems at all levels of field research. The theory focuses on the relation between parts that make up the system. Thus, the theory focuses on the arrangement and the relationship between the parts and how they work together as a complete entity. The properties of a system are determined by how its parts are arranged and how they work together. A system’s behavior is independent of the properties of the elements that make the system. This concept is called the holistic approach to viewing a system (Bailey, 2004). The theory is trans disciplinary in that it studies the abstract organization of a phenomenon, independent of its parts substance or type. It investigates the common principles to all systems and the models that can be used to describe the systems. There are two versions of system theory. First, cybernetics and closed system view of a system. The closed system view argues that a system doesn’t interact with its environment. The system is self-sufficient and self-regulatory and no outside factors interacts or affects its operations. Second, the system is viewed as open and interactive with its environment. The system is affected by external factors that can affect its operation and efficiency. An open system has more variables than a closed system and deals with complex interrelationships. For example cost and quality are complex variables that are only understood by knowing the environmental factors that influence them. The open systems use anticipatory control i.e. regulation is done by anticipating error before occurrence and taking corrective measures immediately (Checkland & Peter 2011). The purpose of regulation for an open system is to make adjustments and retain the system in the dynamic path. The system seeks continuous improvements rather than stability. The open system strives to maintain a dynamic equilibrium unlike a closed system that concerns itself with maintaining stability. Key Fundamental Ideas/Components of a System According to the system theory, a system is open to the environment i.e. it is an open system that interacts with its environment. Open system theory focuses on the interchange between a system and its environment. The system therefore constantly evolves and adapts to the environmental changes in order to survive. By so doing, the system is greatly influenced by the environment and some of its variables such as cost and quality are better explained by understanding the environmental factors that influence them (Turner, 2014). Environmental interactions determine the success of a system’s functionality and efficiency. Since the external environment changes constantly, a system must be flexible to adopt the environmental changes or risk becoming obsolete. For example the technological environment is very dynamic and improved technology changes often (Forrester, 2008). A system that is technologically oriented must keep up with the technology advancements or risk becoming obsolete. Furthermore, systems have a longer life and changes in the environment must occur and affect the system. It is prudent and recommended that a system maintain flexibility to adopt changes. Often than not, change is good, it improves the functionality of the system and allows it to add more value to the organization. The value may be interpreted to mean better quality of system output, cost effectiveness or increased efficiency. A system has a purpose for which it was created. Every system has a goal or objective. A goal is described as the key results that a system hopes to achieve. An organization uses systems to achieve its goals and objectives. A system that has no key purpose will not work since it is impossible how activities will be organized and for what purpose. Each system is designed with a specific purpose to help organizations realise their major goals and objectives. It is important to note that some systems may have multi-purpose. Such systems have powerful tools to enable the system achieve multi-functions in an organization/projects. For example a major goal of the system may be to increase the efficiency and streamline the production of an organization to maximize its profits. The system streamlines the operations by eliminating idle time and wastage of resources (Bailey, 2004). It coordinates the production process to ensure that there are no interruptions or process delays. Efficiency is achieved through eliminating errors and standardizing the products in the entire process of production. The result is reduction of production costs and consequently, maximizing the profits by cutting on production costs. Another key fundamental aspect of a system is interrelated subsystems. The system is made up of different parts that are interrelated and works together to form a whole entity. Subsystems are a defining concept of a system and it captures the holistic view of the system i.e. the idea that the behavior of the entire system is greater than the sum of its parts. The behavior of individual parts doesn’t affect the behavior of the system as a whole. Holism concept focuses on the interrelationships between component parts linkages in order to understand the entire system. The functionality of a system is affected if system designers fail to appreciate the linkages of individual parts and fail to focus entirely on the parts (Checkland & Peter 2011). For example a production system is made up of different parts that add value at every point of the production process. These parts transform the raw materials into a semi-finished good at every stage of the production process. If one part fails to function well, the entire process will be interrupted. In extreme cases, the quality of products could be badly compromised. Therefore, the system designer must concentrate on individual parts specifically on their functionality and how they interrelate and work together with other parts to fulfill the main purpose of the system. Input-transformation-output process is another key fundamental concept of a system. This refers to a constant process that takes input into the system. Inputs are the raw materials, data etc. that need to be proceed to produce output that is useful to a consumer. For example, input in a production system will entail all the raw materials required to make a finished product. The inputs are transformed into output through a process of input-transformation-output. The input is obtained from the environment (Heylighen, 2012). For example, the raw materials for a production process are obtained from suppliers. The transformation process concerns itself with making products from the raw materials. The output/products go back to the environment through consumer purchases. Therefore, the input-out process is dependent on its environment. Interaction with the environment facilitates the acquisition of raw data/materials. The internal environment transforms the input into output which id then released into the environment. Feedback is a fundamental concept that allows a system to attain the desired dynamic equilibrium. There are two types of feedback loops. The first one is negative/error-control feedback that provides system information after an error has occurred. The system utilized the information on small errors to make corrections. The second feedback is called feed forward control and is anticipator in nature. The system normally anticipates the errors that might occur and take corrective actions before the errors affect the system. The feedback mechanism is critical in evaluating the performance of the system (Forrester, 2008). Through feedback, the current errors are corrected and future errors anticipated and corrected in good time before they affect the functioning and the efficiency of the system. Every system must have a proper feedback mechanism that helps improve the system functionality and thus improve the quality of system results/performance. Another key fundamental concept of a system is homeostasis. The concept of homeostasis describes the ability of a system to attain and maintain a steady state of dynamic balance. According to the homeostasis concept, the system doesn’t go back to its original state. Rather, it maintains a state that maximizes its chances of growth and survival. This state in most cases is not the state at which the system initially began. The system interacts with its environment to create the equilibrium balance. Environmental factors interact with the internal factor to create new equilibrium dynamic state in case the initial balance is offset by environmental changes (Duncan, 2006). The adjustment process is automatic and sets into place every time there are new factors that affect the equilibrium Balance. This is because the system must attain the right balance that maximizes its chances to survive and grow. Equifinality is another fundamental key concept of any system. Equifinality refers to the ability of a system to achieve similar final results from distinct initial conditions. That is to say that systems display a many-one-behavior on which they find the same end results from diverse initial beginning positions. The Equifinality concept is liked with a situation where many people shoot at a target. They all sue different positions yet all bullets find the bull’s eye. Therefore, although different conditions characterize a system, they all lead to the same final results. No matter what approach is taken with the different initial conditions, all of the conditions must give the same end results. Equifinality concept assists in standardizing the results of a system and maintains quality (Cleland & Ireland, 2009). Description of the Construction Project and its Key Systems/Processes A construction project refers to the overall planning, coordination and control of erecting a building from the start point to the completion. This discussion focuses on the construction of a commercial building. There are several systems/processes involved in a construction project. Phase management process ensures that each construction phase is completed sufficiently within the stipulated time. Planning involves determining what should be done and how construction will be conducted to ensure the project’s success (Heylighen, 2012). The control process involves exercise influence over the construction project to ensure that activities run smoothly without deviations or interruptions. Team management entails directing, coordinating and ensuring the team perform their roles without any hindrances. Communication is the process clarifying information and instructions at every construction phase. The procurement process deals with purchasing of the construction materials needed to complete the project. Integration is a process that ensures that the construction project conforms to similar buildings and observes the building standards set by local authorities. The phase management and planning systems/processes will be discussed in details because they are critical for the success of the construction project. Project phases are the stages the construction goes through. Project strategy and business case is the initial phase of a construction that defines the project’s purpose, business requirements and methodology. Next is the preparation phase where the project manager works with team members to establish and begin the project. It entails developing a work breakdown structure, recruitment of project members, write project initiation documents (Checkland & Peter 2011). The next critical phase is the design of the commercial building. The phase involves starting the work involved in creating the projects deliverables. The project’s strategy and business documents are used as the starting point. The project manager then works with the relevant specialists to develop the major deliverables. Flow charts and diagrams are used to show how work will flow in construction phases. The implementation phase involves the actual construction and assembly of component parts to complete the building. During this stage the design of the project is used to erect the building, using the strategy and methodologies mentioned in the preparation phase. All the features of the project are erected and the design implemented at all levels of construction process. The final phase is the project close and post-implementation review that ends a project’s life cycle. It involves storing project documentation and carrying out post-implementation reviews. The planning system involves writing a comprehensive plan of how the project will be executed. The entire process of planning involves determining what should be done at each construction phase. It involves determining the team members to use in the project, their job description and expertise needed to complete the project (Forrester, 2008). The planner determines whether other experts such as surveyors and designers will be required and if so at what phases and for how much. Plans are also made on how all the resources will be procured. This involves making budgets, determining the procurement process and controlling the stock of building materials. The planner determines which methodologies to use in the construction processes, the additional tools and how to allocate time to project phases so that the project is completed within the stipulated time. Examples of the Project System Interdependency Project systems are interrelated and interdependent, working together to complete the entire project. A problem in one system affects other systems and compromises the quality of the whole project. For example, a problem in the design process affects the rest of the project systems/processes. If the design of the building is wrongly written or contains ambiguous details, the implementation, quality control and post-implementation review processes will be affected. It is difficult to implement an ambiguous design because the constructors don’t have a clear picture of what they are doing. The building may end up being constructed haphazardly and therefore fail the quality control tests and involve a lot of post-implementation adjustments that make the entire project seem shoddy and hurriedly done (Chapman & Ward, 2006). Decisions in one system affect the decisions of the succeeding systems. For example, the decisions made at the planning process determine how the team management function will be carried out. If the planner decides to use experts, specialists and ground men to carry out the construction, the team manager will look for people with these specific skills and manage them to complete the work. If the planner decides the project completion time to be say, 18 months, the manger must coordinate his team to deliver the project within the set time. All the processes will work around this deadline. This calls for efficiency and synergy to ensure that idleness and delays are eliminated in the entire processes of the construction (Turner, 2014). In addition, in the team management process, the manager can only use the methodologies set in the planning process, which in turn depends on the design of the building. Management Technique for Achieving Project Coordination Project management reports is a management technique that can be used to ensure coordination of activities at every process of the project. A project management report is a written document that describes the progress of the project and the percentage of completion. It shows how different processes work together to achieve overall percentage of completion. The report contains the contribution of all team members and their major performance. It reviews the challenges experienced in the processes and how the team handled them to ensure that the project wasn’t interrupted (Duncan, 2006). The report indicates how different teams and subsystems worked together to create harmony and synergy that ensures that the project performs well and completes within the desired time. The management report indicates the areas that posed challenges to the team. It proposes how the project manager can address the challenges so that the processes are streamlined to facilitate efficiency. Increased efficiency ensured that subsystems work together and interrelate well in performing their functions, which is the essence of coordination. The management report address problematic issues such as budget constraints that hinder and interrupt system functions yet the team members have no authority to deal with. The report helps to eliminate interruptions that cause delays confusion and disorient team members, making coordination and thus difficult to achieve. Effects of External Environment on the Project Systems The project systems interact with the external environment to maintain a dynamic equilibrium state that allow the project to survive grow and become completed. The construction project will take a long time to complete. During the construction process, the external environmental factors change since the external environment is very dynamic. For example the economic environment may change drastically causing inflation. The inflation is translated into an increase in construction materials and labor costs. The project will have a deficit if no prior plan had been made about inflation adjustments (Duncan, 2006). The project sponsor may have to halt the construction process as he solicits for additional funds. This may affect the project’s quality depending on the level of completion. The technological environment can also the systems of the project either positively or negatively. Technology is very dynamic and may render the current technology used in the construction processes obsolete. For example, the design technology changes constantly and the construction process must keep up with the advancement in order to construct a state of art commercial buildings. The government regulations may mandate that all buildings use the advanced design technology because it has more safety and security (Cleland & Ireland, 2009).The regulations may necessitate the entire design system to be halted as the new technology is purchased and designers train on how to use it. This may delay project completion time and increase its cost. Practical Uses of System Theory to a Project Manager System theory helps the manager appreciate the importance of the individual parts in the success of the entire project. The manager understands that the success of the project depends on the performance of the component parts that form the project. If the manager fails to focus exclusively on the parts, the project will fail since it is the interrelation of parts and working together of all components that leads to success of the entire project (Checkland & Peter 2011). The manager must understand how each subsystem operates, its relations with other parts, its contribution to the success of the entire system and how to correct errors in the subsystem to avoid errors in other subsystems related to it. The theory facilitates coordination of major activities and processes of a project. Since the manager understands the importance of subsystems, he gets insights of how he can coordinate the interrelated parts to create synergy and coordination of efforts. Understanding the system theory help the project manager to streamline the processes of the project to ensure that errors that affect the project are detected and eliminated before they affect all the subsystems and the resulting project performance. The project manager understands the importance of feedback in eliminating errors that may affect the subsystems of the project (Forrester, 2008). The manager learns to seek feedback that will help him improve the process performance and quality of the complete project. References Bailey, K.F. (2004) Sociology and the New Systems Theory. Albany: State University of New York. Buckley, Walter (ed.), Modern Systems Research for the Behavioral Scientist: A Sourcebook. Chicago: 2004 Chapman, C., & Ward, S. (2006). Project risk management: processes, techniques and insights. John Wiley. Checkland, Peter (2011), Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Cleland, D. I., & Ireland, L. R. (2009). Project management: strategic design and implementation (Vol. 4). Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Cybernetics and Systems 92, R. Trappl (ed.), (World Science, Singapore), p. 3-10. Duncan, W. R. (2006). A guide to the project management body of knowledge. Forrester, Jay W. (2008), Principles of Systems, Cambridge, MA: Wright-Allen Press. Heylighen F. (2012): "Principles of Systems and Cybernetics: an evolutionary perspective" Turner, J. R. (2014). The handbook of project-based management (Vol. 92). McGraw-hill. Read More