National Culture and Negotiation Approaches - Literature review Example

Cross-cultural Communication Student’s Name Number Course Code Course Date Cross-cultural Communication Introduction Communication forms an essential element in the formation of organization, along with common purpose and readiness to serve. Actually, the influential capacity of communication can be a determining factor of organizational culture if it viewed from different perspectives such as information exchange, as well as, the gathering, storage, replication and conveyance of information. Communication plays crucial role especially in multinational companies where solemn miscommunication can result from cultural elements. Miscommunication can also stem from linguistic capacity where there is little shared information about cultural behaviours, communication and discussion styles or business customs. For instance, Japanese style of communication is unique and strongly contrasts the English communication style. Mode of thought-organization is a widely recognized difference of Japanese culture from Western culture and is shown as gyre model, which creates and transfers ideas rather implicitly and indirectly. On the other hand, the English thought-organization has a linear pattern, which generates ideas linearly throughout (Fujio 2004, p.331). This paper is going to discuss the concept of cross cultural communication in management and behaviour organizations. Intercultural communication in Mexican context Madlock (2012, p.169) says that, the worldwide economy has generated a realism where rapport between U.S firms and other nations like Mexico has turned out to be a lifestyle for businesses. In this study, independent mindedness’s theory was used to form theoretical milieu for looking at relationships among ideas linked to it. Cultural practices of employees in high capability distance like Mexico are particularly crucial drivers in the regulation of communication behaviours among organizational members. In other words, there is a mounting interest of foreign organizations like U.S firms of carrying their business operations in Mexican Market or shifting their business dealings to Mexico. Therefore, comprehending the communication patterns which occur in the Mexican places of work warrants exclusive attention by business scholars and organizational communication. According to Madlock (2012, p.171), the Mexican case study focuses on communication elements such as communication apprehension, avoidance behaviours as well as communication satisfaction. Communication apprehension refers to a broad-based anxiety or fear relating to anticipated or real communication with an individual or a group of individuals. Employees in Mexican organizations may be inattentive, uninvolved and disengaged during communication conversations with their superiors due to the one-way type of communication which occurs in such organizations. In short, the impact of power distance on employees, like telling employees what and how to do, influences their communication conduct to a level where they totally avoid communication with their superiors. On avoidance behaviours, when superiors and workmates use urgent and approach-based messages, the messages’ recipient has a feeling of being important to the organization. On the contrary, if messages lack urgency and are avoidance-oriented, feelings of being an outcast occurs to the recipient. Negative kinds of communication decrease productivity, commitment and attendance of workers. Moreover, communication satisfaction is positively linked with employees’ motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and productivity. Communication in culturally diverse organizations In an organizational set up, communication refers to the shared meanings’ exchange among active participants. Complex organizations comprise of several cultural and social groupings and thus, communication among them is expected to involve shared meanings as well as contested and contradictory ones. As a result, conflict and value resolution along with quality dialogue are required. Furthermore, communication participants may be uniformly active in generating meanings; however they normally do that from different power positions. Access to organizational information usually depends on the positions and networking opportunities of the members. Hence, quality dialogue acts as a resonance amid cultural experiences and beliefs of participants, articulated through a common acquaintance with the used codes. While organizational members ought to make use of emerging telematics and electronic technologies, such technologies should be used together with face-to-face dialogue. Regardless of the development process of actors, feedback is needed to assist people to be more receptive to addressing unforeseen events within organizational settings (Korac-Kakabadse, et al. 2001, p.12). Korac-Kakabadse, et al. (2001, p.13) further assert that, maturing and innovating organizations should make sure that there is a high-quality dialogue amid top executives and other organizational members. International research on management competencies shows that, when there is a high-quality dialogue and a positive rapport amongst top management, the concerns and issues facing organizations have a tendency of being more openly dealt with. On the other hand, where there is restricted dialogue’s quality and tense relationships, certain issues are not raised, since doing so would result in unacceptable discomfort levels among all or certain members of top management. Information on ways of addressing issues by top management is important to successful partnerships and relationships within and outside the organization. National culture and negotiation approaches Lin & Miller (2003, p.286) maintain that, when people carry out business across national territories, they often introduce different cultural predispositions to business negotiations within which interaction among them takes place. Partners in global joint ventures use four main negotiation approaches in solving disagreements namely problem solving, forcing, compromising and legalism. In problem solving, partners openly swap information on priorities and goals and actively look for options to meet the decision criteria of both sides. Compromising involves seeking a central point between the preliminary positions of both sides. Forcing is whereby power is utilized in making the other person to comply. Lastly, legalism is where one party demand for an official legal contract or a binding agreement in order to gain conformity. National culture affects negotiation behaviour both directly and indirectly. The direct effect is based on two cultural dimensions including high vs. low context communication and individualism vs. collectivism. Individualism-collectivism relates to the link between a person and his or her group and substantively differentiates Chinese and American cultures. Chinese emphasize group needs and goals, and try hard to uphold relational harmony. On the contrary, the orientation of American culture revolves around pressure to control the individual’s fate. Moreover, contexts refer to background information that is needed for interpersonal interaction like social status. Chinese expresses their views explicitly and openly, while Americans appreciate directness and openness with little focus on concealed contexts (Lin & Miller 2003, p.291). The indirect effect relates to in group-out group consciousness. Compared to individualistic cultures’ members, collective cultures’ members have a tendency of being more responsive to group devotion in social events (Lin & Miller 2003, p.292). Influence of culture on international negotiations According to Hurn (2007, p.354), negotiating with people from different countries greatly differs from negotiating in the local market. Several factors need to be taken into account, including cultural sensitivities, different languages, tax regimes, diverse business practices and legal systems. The environment for negotiation can be more complicated by restrictive regulations, direct government control, and government-led bureaucracy. In considering language, it would be easier if global negotiations were done in a single language. Many people would support English as the main and appropriate international language that should be used in cross-cultural negotiations. However, not every participant of international business speaks English or wants to use English. Moreover, is undeniably difficult with a broad range of vocabularies and confusing colloquialism and metaphors. Thus, finding a single language to use during such negotiations becomes a bit complex. Negotiation across cultures often requires the use of interpreters and translators. Their selection ought to be based on professional qualifications and rich experience in similar types of negotiations. Summaries in the relevant languages of main points during negotiations must be presented in translation as needed to make sure that all participants are in accord up to certain stages. In addition, it is useful to take advantage of shared experiences especially in the introduction phase. They are helpful in informal and preliminary discussions such as short conversations relating to art, family, sport and interests. Furthermore, humour can be used as an ice-breaker. However, on the global scene, using humour is likened with a two-edged sword, because it does not translate well always across cultures (Hurn 2007, p.356). Respect as a component of effective cross-cultural communication Respect communication has been identified as a crucial aspect of cross-cultural communication. Culture has an insightful impact on views of respect, and the manner in which it is conveyed across cultures take a range of forms including verbally, nonverbally and paralinguistically. Respect cannot be assessed by individuals, but is expressed by the other members of a certain group. Consequently, if a person feels respected by those he or she interacts with; it may increase the person’s motivation to give in return the helpful relational information through acting in support of the interests of the group. Moreover, emergent interaction behaviours seem to have rather a strong connection with the way individuals judge a dialogue as well as their partners. Therefore, relational success depends on the ability to show respect as well as shunning disrespectful communication (Mackenzie & Wallace 2011, p.11). Mackenzie & Wallace (2011, p.13) further argue that, when comparing cross-cultural communication between Americans and Koreans, the former shows respect in the preliminary interactions by viewing other people as equals and expressing genuine joy in making new acquaintances. Americans also communicate respect through the use handshakes and smiling as well as through the use of direct, oral communication to express politeness. On the other hand, Koreans judge communication of respect based on formality particularly in introductions, use of correct name as well as acknowledging the status and age of a person. Management of cultural diversity by healthcare professionals Care involving patients and health professionals of differing ethnicity and culture is progressively becoming more of a norm in industrialized nations. Ethnic inequalities that are present in health care in different disease settings pose many challenges. This includes ethnic disparities in receiving correct tests, analgesia and palliative care by cancer patients. As a way of responding to such situations, the impact of cultural differences on routine clinical encounters needs increased attention. The understanding and choice of care by patients ought to be based on suitable exchange of information between patients and health professionals. On the contrary, the acquisition and utilization of the information can be affected by the communication’s process and context. A guide on cancer services in the United Kingdom emphasized the necessity for professional providing cancer care to develop general communication skills (Kai, et al. 2011, p.918). According to Kai, et al. (2011, p.920), a study on cross-cultural communication between health professionals and patients in UK showed an array of communication barriers where different languages where involved. Communication remained ineffective where third parties acted as translators. Professionals highlighted how ascertaining concerns, checking understand, evaluating needs and negotiating treatment with patients were more difficult when interactions encompassed patients with no or little English, which presented potential consequences on patient care. Moreover, assessing non-oral communication as well as cultural disparities in perception and expression formed other sources of difficulties even where the use of English was sufficient. Work values and national culture Drawing from Hattrup, et al. (2007, p.481), values are considered to be central to culture, impacting the practices, norms, symbols and heroes which emerge and become implemented by the members of a given group. Values represent worldwide beliefs concerning bad or good, pr about what is undesirable or desirable. Work values imply beliefs regarding the interest of certain work outcomes, and due to the significance of work when determining several social and economic outcomes, work values are some of the crucial reflections of, and influences on culture. A study on the significance of different work values in different nations among IBM subsidiaries’ employees across the globe identified numerous cultural dimensions including power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity. The study also claims that, work values vary across country borders. Cross-national individualism or collectivism differences may affect the level of relationships amid overall satisfaction and specific job facets’ satisfaction which reflect group relations and interpersonal relations in the workplace. Satisfaction in facets relating to supervision and leadership may also vary among cultures with varied power distance. In cultures with high power distance, employees expect more isolated relationships with their superiors and expect superiors to use more authoritarian or directive leadership styles as compared to low power distance cultures (Hattrup, et al. 2007, p.483). Cultural adaptations for foreign companies Kao, et al. (1990, p.657) argues that, it is supposed that, the use of or depending upon foreign technocrats is a widespread feature for work organizations and enterprises in the present industrializing setting of many contemporary societies. Managing foreign technocrats has a possibility of assimilating and reconciling readily with indigenous culture. However, it may also be vulnerable to transplant philosophies and practices from its society of origin. Considering the case of CPA (Cathay Pacific Airway), which is Swire Group’s subsidiary based in Hong Kong, it has a total of 9,000 employees consisting of both local and foreign. A bigger percentage of the employees are foreign. The Western idea of senior management which is technocratic and overtly rule-oriented has been witnessed in this company. It has been established that, the communication style of the senior management of CPA seemed to be formal and rigid. A bigger percentage of the foreign managers have a tendency of following the explicit procedures and standard set by the organization. The Hong Kong airline has been in a position to acknowledge the significance of human relationships inside a firm operating in the Chinese society. All these are important in adapting to the native personnel and their cultural features (Kao, et al. 1990, p.659). Communication in culturally diverse teams Drawing from Huili, et al. (2011, p.50), with the growth of the international economy, multicultural work groups are turning out to be increasingly common with English becoming the main language that is used by the members of such teams. The teams’ composition determines their and may also hinder them from achieving their performance potential. Researches on culturally varied groups show that, fairly heterogeneous teams experience considerable communication problems, lower team identity and relational conflicts that have dysfunctional effect on the effectiveness of the teams. A study on English speakers from Chinese origin and Belarus has shown that, Belarus contributed more as compared to Chinese English users when they worked in mixed teams. However, oral contributions of both groups depended on the group’s composition. This meant that, when the Chinese were the majority, they contributed more than the Belarus and vice versa. From here, it is clear that, communication difficulties across different cultures highly depend on the group’s composition. Conclusion Communication is an important component of organization formation and plays a central role in multinational organizations. Mexican markets are high power distance setting and thus avoidance behaviours and communication apprehension are common among employees. High-quality dialogue among top management and other organizational members encourage open addressing of issues facing organizations. National culture influences the choice of negotiation approach that is adopted in global joint ventures. Respect is communicated differently in different cultures and is a crucial aspect in ensuring competence in cross-cultural communication. Communication difficulties are common in the United Kingdom where culturally and ethnically diverse health professional and patients exist. The composition of teams with culturally varied members determines their effectiveness, as well as the contribution level of team members with the majority contributing more than the minority. References Fujio, M 2004, Silence during intercultural communication: a case study, Corporate Communications, 9(4), pp. 331-339. Hattrup, K, Mueller, K & Joens, I 2007, The Effects of Nations and Organisations on Work Value Importance: A Cross-Cultural Investigation, Applied Psychology, 56(3), p. 479–499. Huili, W, Yi, H & Shuo, C 2011, Conversation Analysis in Cross-Culture Team Communication, Cross-Cultural Communication, 7(4), pp. 49-55. Hurn, BJ 2007, The influence of culture on international business negotiations, Industrial And Commercial Training, 39(7), pp. 354-360. Kai, J, Beavan, J & Faull, C 2011, Challenges of mediated communication, disclosure and patient autonomy in cross-cultural cancer care, British Journal of Cancer, 105(1), p. 918 – 924. Kao, HS, Sek, HN & Chan, YK 1990, Cultural Adaptations And Diffusion For Managerial Strategies And Responses In Hong Kong, International Journal of Psychology, 25(5), pp. 657-674. Korac-Kakabadse, N, Kouzmin, A, Korac-Kakabadse, A & Savery, L 2001, Low- and High-Context Communication Patterns: Towards Mapping Cross-Cultural Encounters, Cross Cultural Management, 8(2), pp. 3-24. Lin, X & Miller, SJ 2003, Negotiation approaches: direct and indirect effect of national culture, International Marketing Review, 20(3), pp. 286-303. Mackenzie, L & Wallace, M 2011, The Communication of Respect as a Significant Dimension of Cross-Cultural Communication Competence, Cross-cultural Communication, 7(3), pp. 10-18. Madlock, PE 2012, The Influence of Power Distance and Communication on Mexican Workers, Journal of Business Communication, 49(2), p. 169–184. Read More