Program Management Issues - Case Study Example

Project Management Introduction Project management is the planning, managing and organizing resources in an effort to achieve goals and objectives attributed to a specific project. Basically, a project is a series of activities having a definite beginning and an end designed to attain specific goals and objectives usually to bring forth some beneficial value. For a project to be deemed successful it has to be completed within the set time, quality, and budgetary limits; hence the need for management. Project management activities entail planning the project in order of priority and resources available, monitoring progress and reviewing the project at different stages, carrying out evaluation of the project so as to assess the implications of deviations from the project’s framework, and control activities also referred to as control measures. Another point is post audit review which is done on the project’s completion with an aim to assess how time quality, and budgetary limits (Williams, 2003, p.148-149). An inherent nature of projects is that they are temporary and managing them requires distinct technical skills, thus in practical sense, project management stands in contrast to management of other business operations which are permanent, semi-permanent, or repetitive. A basic challenge allotted to managing a project is on how to attain all the project goals and objectives while taking into account the predetermined project constraints (Lester, 2006, p.1-2). The aim of this paper is to assess project management comprehensively. In particular, the paper will include a case study on two major projects to elaborate and enable deeper understanding of this subject. Management concepts Prior to carrying out an analysis on two major projects with regards to their construction, it is important to ascertain the key management theories in order to understand how these major projects were executed from a project management point of view. There are five theories from a management school of thought. First is the management process school of thought which is based on the belief that management is the procedure of executing work by people in organized groups. Those who vouch for this school argue that management as an art is basically indifferent irrespective of where is applied. Second is the empirical school of thought which is based on the fact that the approach to management should emanate from managerial experiences. This school of thought aims to derive from observation good or bad experiences against certain organizations which in turn is transferred to management practitioners (Duft, n.d, p 2). The other three theories are highlighted next. The human behavior school of thought revolves around the theory that management should focus on the people’s interpersonal relation since management involves work execution by and through the people. The social system is almost synonymous to the human behavior school as it is based on the assumption that management is system of intercultural relationships. This school of thought identifies the nature of social or cultural relationships and evaluates their significance in the performance of the integrated system. Those who advocate for the decision theory school of thought base their argument on what they refer to as the rational approach to decision making. Based on this school of thought, decision theorists usually address basic information for purposes of making decisions, evaluating various value considerations and integrating both into a broad view of the organization system (Duft, n.d. p 3). Construction of the Great Pyramid The Great Pyramid is one of the most precisely surveyed constructions in the world. It is also one of the most accurately made constructions in the world that only contemporary surveying equipment has been able to detect any error in its ancient stones. The Great Pyramid was intricately built by Egyptians using the most modern techniques at that time in history, precision and detail notwithstanding. Looked at it from a project management aspect, it is easy to identify several obstacles that took significant effort to overcome (Romer, 2007, p. 4). This therefore implies that construction of the Great Pyramid must have been managed in a very refined manner considering the obstacles present then, key among them being, constraints in labor, time, finance, engineering plans and so on. For better comprehension of this subject with respect to the project attributed to construction of the Great Pyramid it is imperative to assess the various aspects involved. These various aspects include the project’s purpose, time frame, technology applied, labor force, finance, and technique used. Purpose of the Great Pyramid The Pharaoh, like his people, was of the belief that every living being was inhabited by a double, referred to as ka, which need not die when breathing stops, but that the double would survive all the more in totality if the flesh were cushioned against violence, hunger, and decay through preservation hence the need and purpose of the pyramid. Pyramids were therefore used as tombs (Mensch, 2004, p. 213; Booth, p. 283). However, there are those who disagree with the idea that pyramids were used as tombs. According to practical as well as scientific research by those in the field of Egyptology, Archeology, and Pyramidology, pyramids were used for a different purpose other than burial. It is interesting to note that no mummy has ever been removed from any pyramid, including the Great Pyramid. A mummy was discovered from the third pyramid, however, the burial turned out to be a forced one according to archeologists who carried out close examination on the same. Incidentally, the bones retrieved from the third pyramid were carbon dated and the test results revealed that they belonged to the early Christian era (Alford, 2010, p. 89). The theory of pyramids being tombs emanated from the Saite Dynasty in the period between 663 and 525 BC. Interests in the pyramids were revived during this period. The period was characterized by massive intrusions on tombs. Egyptians of the Saite dynasty started to use the tombs for purposes of burying the dead - the tombs having lost their real meaning. Evidence reveals that the coffin lid fragment retrieved from the third pyramid belonged to the Saite era (Alford, 2010, p. 89). There are several fables with regards to the real purpose behind which the pyramids were built but in actual sense the real purpose behind construction of the pyramids is still unclear despite the most popular and common notion that they were meant for burial. However, strong evidence suggests that they were either tombs or temples for prayer. Construction Time Line of Great Pyramid Most modern estimates, with regards to the pace attributed to construction of the Great pyramid, simply followed chronological historian calculations that estimated King Khufu’s rule at twenty three years, and thus, concluded this to be the time it took to build the Great pyramid. Romer (2007, p.70) is of a different opinion far from these historians’ sentiments. He points out that there is no way the pyramid makers could have predicted the length of King Khufu’s reign which therefore implies that it could not be used to estimate the actual time it took to construct the pyramid. On the flipside, there is no way such a humongous project could have taken place without prior knowledge of its date of completion. It is assumed therefore that the pyramid makers had a predetermined time frame within which the project was to be completed. Financing the Great Pyramid It is worth pointing out that workers working on the pyramid were paid in terms of grain, oil, other foods, and clothes. Of course payments differed depending on a number of factors such as, rank and the level of skill possessed by an individual. For instance, a superintendent earned 16 loaves of bread and 16 jugs of beer each day. Incidentally, a barter economy was also in place, so a worker possessing a set of skills would perform for another who would do the same for him. Construction of the pyramid’s total labor cost was estimated at 126 million loaves of bread and 111 million jugs of beer over the project’s 10 year span. The production capacity for Egypt’s agriculture by then suggests that it was perfectly conceivable for the economy to support such a cause during that period (Smith, 1999, p. 8) Workforce behind Construction of the Great Pyramid A Greek historian known as Herodotus carried out an estimation of the labor force and time that it might have taken to build one pyramid. In his estimation, Herodotus concluded that it might have taken 100,000 workers 20 years to construct one pyramid (Christensen, 2009, p 30-32). Even though this has been the accepted theory over the years, there are those who are in disagreement, terming it practically absurd. There are 7305 days in 20 years; a pyramid is made up of 2.3 million blocks of stone most of which averagely weigh 2.5 tons. If Herodotus’ theory was correct, then it implies that a pyramid would require at least 315 of the 2.5 ton blocks to be used on the pyramid daily. The ramp they employed would have to be heightened and lengthened daily as they completed each level worked upon; this is because of the basic structure of the pyramid, its incline and so on (Powell, 2002, p. 79). If the number of days allotted to the pyramid were proportionally decreased by one third, the remaining number of days would only be 4870. This implies that 472 blocks were placed in the structure daily when there was no work in the ramp. Assuming in one day the men worked for 12 hours, it would mean they positioned between 39 and 40 blocks per hour which is virtually impossible considering the incredible skill evidenced in the pyramid’s construction. Modern Egyptologists are of the belief that the labor force was more like 15000 workers. Compared to modern standards, the tools used by pyramid builders were primitive. However, it is worth pointing out that they had unlimited manpower, strong leadership, spiritual inspiration, exceptional organization and sufficient time (Powell, 2002, p. 79). Though the number of workers and the time frame attributed to construction of the Great Pyramid varies from one researcher to another, one thing is certain - it must have taken more than 20,000 workers to work on the pyramid for a period between 20 to thirty years. This is supported by the fact that the pyramid was to be completed within King Khufu’s lifetime which must have been predicted at around 20 years. Technology of the Great Pyramid Given the complex nature of pyramids, it follows that the technology employed must have been complicated. The first step to constructing a pyramid was to ascertain a suitable location, more often than not locations chosen were remote areas of the desert. Subsequent to choosing a location, architects pyramids came up with the design of the pyramid more so on the angle the pyramid would be. Prior to construction, the sides of the pyramid had to be oriented with North-South line. This was facilitated using the sun or stars as guides. After coming up with the correct alignment, a foundation ceremony was conducted followed by a decision by the architects on the appropriate and relevant materials to be used (Smith, 1999, p. 3). Pharaohs sought longevity in the pyramids constructed, that is, their desire was for the pyramids to last a lifetime. To achieve this end, it was imperative that the pyramids be built using stone. A wide array of stones were used to build the pyramids. For instance, the cores of the pyramids were built using limestone; this is based on the fact that limestone is coarse and rough, making it appropriate for the pyramid’s core. The pyramid’s exterior walls were built using fine white limestone. The interior walls of the pyramids were built using either mud brick or fine white limestone. Pink granite was used for purposes of covering the interior walls. Incidentally, granite was used for roofing blocks and pillars as it is harder than limestone. Use of alabaster was applied on floors, while granite was use as capstone on top of the pyramid, and interestingly, gold was also used as capstone (Rose & Edwards, n.d., p.7). The area where the pyramid was to be built was leveled by workers, dug, and filled with water to act as levels. Tunnels wee also dug under the site. Before roofing the burial chambers, pharaoh’s sarcophagus had to be lowered into the chamber by the workers. The chamber then had to be filled with more than 1000 tons of sand and the sarcophagus dragged on top. Next, the sand was scooped out. With each scoop out, the coffin dropped into the chamber a little deeper. When all the sand had been finally removed, the sarcophagus was entrenched in place; subsequently more sand was added to the chamber so as to position the roof place. In effect, the entire pyramid’s weight pressed the roof slabs down so it was imperative that they be strong and perfectly positioned (Rose & Edwards, n.d., p. 9). The pyramid’s bottom layer took over a month to complete. More than 20,000 blocks had to be laid in form of horizontal layers to facilitate passageways and chambers inside the pyramid. On completion of the pyramid, a fine layer of limestone was laid on the exterior walls which made the pyramid shine in the sun. A capstone was placed at the apex of the pyramid. The capstone were made up of granite or limestone and coated with gold (Rose & Edwards, n.d., p. 10). Form of Management Applied on the Great Pyramid It is certain that science, mathematics, and engineering disciplines essential to execute humongous constructions were well entrenched in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians had the ability to foresee floods, identify stars with accuracy, calculate volumes and areas of huge structures like the pyramid and so on. Evidently, their records were also well documented (Smith, 1999, p.2). Based on this alone, it would not be far fetched to assume that the level of management they applied to construct a project as complex as the construction of the Great Pyramid must have been sophisticated compared to modern standards. Logistics incorporated in construction of the great pyramid are mind boggling considering the ancient Egyptians did not have wheels, iron tools, or pulleys. There were multiple activities as there were thousands of laborers involved in the construction of the Great Pyramid. Additionally, considering the pyramid’s complex nature the number of skilled laborers must have been high, comprising skilled laborers derived from within Egypt and beyond. This therefore implies that with regards to the form of management applied in the construction of the great pyramid against the theories of management from the five schools of thought, present must have been decision theory and the social system. Decision theory as one of the management theories is considered as a possibility taking into account the multiple activities involved in the construction of this mega structure, multiple problems must have come up hence the need for decision theory as a form of management. Social systems as a form management is also considered as a form of management, taking into account workers came from various backgrounds where culture and religious affiliations were different from the other to a significant degree. Team members working on the Great Pyramid derived their expertise from working in large construction projects to establish the period it would take to cut and ferry block of lime stones and to put up the pyramid (Smith, 1999, p.4). In addition to the other two forms of management pointed out above, based on the fact that team members drew their expertise from other projects they had worked on, the empirical school of thought cannot be overlooked. Capital Gate Capital Gate is owned and developed by the Abu Dhabi National Exhibitions Center (ADNEC) in Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates. The building was certified by the Guinness World Records as the ‘World’s Furthest Leaning Manmade Tower.’ Capital Gate has a distinctive design that features technical excellence in construction. The building was designed to have a slanting appearance, which makes it distinctive among many other buildings of the world. Purpose and Technology behind construction of Capital Gate The purpose behind the construction of Capital Gate is to serve as a 5 star hotel as well as to house an estimated 20,000 square meters of premium office space. Each room is distinct from another and so is each pane of façade glass as well as each interior angle. The building’s twin glazed facade facilitates higher energy efficacy with waste air being pre-cooled in between the exterior and interior facades, prior to being expelled and the glass which is of low emissivity is being applied in the United Arab Emirates for the first time. It maintains cool temperatures inside the tower and deflects glare while retaining transparency (Capital Gate). Technology applied in construction of the Capital Gates tower is incredible. The building’s floor plates are vertically stacked up to the 12th storey, and then staggered on top of each other between 300mm and 1400 mm which in effect, give rise to the tower’s dramatic lean. The tower incorporates other innovative construction methods comprising of the first pre-cambered core ever known to the world. This pre-cambered core contains over 15,000 meters of concrete supported with 10,000 tons of steel. The core, designed deliberately slightly off centre, has straightened with the building’s increase in height, constricting the concrete and strengthening it, and moving into place vertically as the floor weight has been added (Capital Gate). Financing Capital Gate The eccentric stainless steel splash descending from the 19th floor is a shading device and a design element that reduces more than 30 percent of heat emanating from the sun before it reaches the tower. The splash also spirals the tower southwards to shield the tower from direct sunlight as much as possible. Construction of the tower had a time frame of close to three years commencing from 2007 right through to 2010, where its completion was expected towards the end of 2010. Construction of Capital Gate was financed by Abu Dhabi National Exhibition Centre, which is one of the most modern exhibition centers in the world (Capital Gate). Form of Management applied in Capital Gate Considering the complex nature characterizing the Capital Gate tower, it is certain that decision theory as a form of management was applied in managing the project, this considering the various numerous elements taken into account prior to putting up the structure. Incidentally, human behavior school of management as a management school of thought was also applied considering the various background the workers originate from. It is worth pointing out that Abu Dhabi National Exhibition Centre hired RMJM construction company as the main contractor responsible for the tower’s construction. The fact that RMJM is a foreign company brings forth the notion that human behavior school of management was applied during the period of construction. Capital Gate tower as structure is somewhat synonymous with the Leaning Tower of Pisa. This therefore implies empirical school of thought was also present with regards to managing the project’s construction. Conclusion Both the Great Pyramid and Capital Gate are exemplary structures by all standards. This is supported by the fact that they both have made it to the Guinness Book of world records for the accuracy, precision, and management applied in their construction. Both of these structures are situated in the desert and such it is exceptional that they have stood out with regards to their construction considering hot weather conditions attributed to the desert. Technology applied in both structures is also impeccable as great expertise is depicted in both The form of management applied in managing construction projects attributed to both structures is more or less similar, that is, evidences of decision theory and the empirical school of thought are present in construction management of both structures. It is certain that the program management techniques executed in both structures are exemplary and so are the planning and administrative skills. 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Romer, J. 2007, The Great Pyramid: ancient Egypt revisited, University Press, Cambridge. Rose, J., and Edwards, I, (n.d.) Pyramids of Egypt. In the Hands of a Child Publishers, Pierce Street. Smith, C. 1999, “Program Management, B.C.,” Civil Engineering Magazine June, p 4-10, Available from http://www.ekt.bme.hu/CM-BSC-MSC/ProgramManagementBC.pdf (24 January, 2011). Wlliams, G. 2003. The enterprising city centre: Manchester's development challenge, Taylor & Francis, London. Read More