Qualitative Method and Data Analysis - Research Proposal Example

Assessment 2 “Qualitative Research and Data Analysis” Abstract This study explores qualitative research and data analysis. First, the study discusses characteristics of the qualitative research methods. Second, the terms commonly used in the qualitative research methods are described. Third, the four methods most commonly used in qualitative nursing research are ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, and historical research. It is followed by discussion on sampling and data analysis. Finally it shows a real example of a research problem which is appropriate for qualitative research design. I. Background and purpose 1.1. The background context of the essay The purpose of this research study is to examine the characteristics and concepts of qualitative methods. The discussion aims at studying challenges of the qualitative methods, analyzing why research questions are necessary for qualitative research, and importance of sampling, and limitations on research methods. 1.2 Relevant theoretical frameworks The four methods most commonly used in qualitative nursing research are ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, and historical research. Each of these designs will be described, with examples of each in relation to school nursing research (Broussard, 2006). Ethnography involves studying a group of people in their own environment. The goal of ethnography is to learn from, rather than about, people of various cultures, religions, and ethnic groups (Spradley, 1980). The philosophical underpinnings of phenomenology are the basis of this qualitative research method. The goal of phenomenology is to achieve a deeper understanding of the nature and meanings of everyday experiences. Its central focus is the lived experience of the world in everyday life (Carpenter, 1999). The grounded theory approach to qualitative research explores social processes that occur within human interactions. The goal of grounded theory is to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Historical research has been considered a legitimate scholarly method in nursing during the past three decades (Fitzpatrick, 2001). 1.3 Definition of key terms Table 1. Terms used in qualitative research Terms Metaphor Description Reflexivity Preconceptions Theoretical frame of reference Metapositions Transferability The knower’s mirror The researcher’s backpack The analyst’s reading glosses Participating observer’s sidetrack External validity An attitude of attending systematically to the context of knowledge construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at every step of the research process Previous personal and professional experiences, prestudy beliefs about how things are and what is to be investigated, motivation and qualifications for exploration of the field, and perspectives and theoretical foundations related to education and interests Theories, models, and notions applied for interpretation of the material and for understanding a specific situation Strategies for creating adequate distance from a study setting that you are personally involved in The range and limitations for application of the study findings, beyond the context in which the study was done Source: Malteraud (2001) 1.4 Aims and objectives This study aims: 1. To critically analyse the characteristics and concepts of qualitative methods, 2. To discuss the strengths and weaknesses qualitative methods 3. To critically analyse the need for a research questions and aims and how they are developed 4. To discuss sampling, and 5. To discuss the limitations of qualitative research II. Qualitative Methods 2.1 Characteristics and concepts The characteristics of the qualitative research are : (1) Subjectivity valued, (2) multiple realities, (3) discovery, description, understanding, (4) interpretative, (5) organismic, (6) whole is greater than the parts, (7) report rich narrative, (8) researcher part of research process, (9) participants, and (10) context dependent Lisa (Broussard, 2006). Qualitative research methods involve the systematic collection, organisation, and interpretation of textual material derived from talk or observation. It is used in the exploration of meanings of social phenomena as experienced by individuals themselves, in their natural context. Qualitative research is still regarded with scepticism, accused of its subjective nature and the absence of facts. Although the adequacy of guidelines has been vigorously debated within this cross disciplinary field, “scientific standards, criteria, and checklists do exist.” However, as Chapple and Rogers (1998) point out, researchers often encounter difficulties when they try to apply guidelines designed by social scientists, which deal with issues important in their own discipline, but which are not necessarily generically valid as scientific standards. Hamberg and colleagues (1994), for example, claim that the established criteria for scientific rigour in quantitative research cannot be applied to qualitative studies. Referring to Lincoln and Guba (1985), they suggest alternative criteria: credibility, dependability, confirmabiliry, and transferability. They admit that these criteria correspond with traditional ones in some ways, comparing credibility with internal validity, confirmability with objectivity, and transferability with generadisability. Mays and Pope (2000), however, maintain that qualitative research can be assessed with reference to the same broad criteria as quantitative research, albeit used in a different way. Referring to Hammersley (1990), they suggest that validity and relevance are essential. Neither of these criteria are straightforward to assess though, and each requires judgments to be made. To improve validity, Mays and Pope (2000) suggest procedures and principles such as triangulation, respondent validation, clear derailing of methods of data collection and analysis, reflexivity, attention to negative cases, and fair dealing. Relevance can be increased by the use of detailed reports and sampling techniques. The importance of clinical relevance has also been emphasised by Giacomim and Cook (2000). 2.2 Challenges Reflexivity A researcher's background and position will affect what they choose to investigate, the angle of investigation, the methods judged most adequate for this purpose, the findings considered most appropriate, and the framing and communication of conclusions. Contemporary theory of knowledge acknowledges the effect of a researcher's position and perspectives, and disputes the belief of a neutral observer. Haraway (1991) claims that the perspective of the observer is always limited and determines what can be seen. This notion applies even in laboratory science. Transferability The importance of sampling is closely related to validity. Internal validity asks whether the study investigates what it is meant to, whereas external validity asks in what contexts the findings can be applied. The nature and extent of the data will ascertain which conclusions can be drawn about what. The aim of research is to produce information that can be shared and applied beyond the study setting. No study, irrespective of the method used, can provide findings that are universally transferable. The study design should show a thorough consideration of what an adequate degree of transferability would be, in view of the assumptions of the research question, and present a relevant sampling strategy. Interpretation and analysis A thorough, well prepared, and well documented analysis is what distinguishes scientific approach from superficial conjecture. The researcher's task is to organise, compare, and validate alternative interpretations. Only when the researcher can identify the systematic procedure that has been followed in this process, can it be shared with others. Declaring that qualitative analysis was done, or stating that categories emerged when the material had been read by one or more persons, is not sufficient to explain how and why patterns were noticed. 2.3 Sampling Sampling strategies might seem fundamentally different for qualitative and quantitative inquiry. The key to understanding how these different approaches still accommodate scientific quality is to move beyond procedures and to keep the principles of the research in mind. Purposeful or theoretical sampling are commonly done to obtain qualitative material (Lincoln,1995). Previous experience and theoretical frameworks will indicate where to go for resources ie, Skelton and colleagues (1995) designed a study to investigate the heterogeneity of practices and of a wide range of practitioners. Sampling is usually done in a stepwise way, including more data from one group or another dependent on what extra material is needed to answer the research question effectively. A discussion about who and what the findings actually relate to is a key component of external validation in a qualitative study (Malteaud, Hollnagel 1999; Sdderltmd, Skoge, and Malterod 2000). The procedures described are fundamentally different from those used to deal with prevalence, distributions, or numerical differences, in which large representative or random samples, allowing for calculations of probability with subsequent inference to a defined population, are required. In qualitative inquiry, the aim with respect to external validity is to ascertain whether or not the study hypothesis or results can be applied in other settings. Presentation of contextual background material, such as demographics and study setting, is necessary if the reader is to be able to ascertain for which situations the findings might provide valid information. The pursuit of diversity and contradictions in interpretive analysis of textual material is not logically compatible with the standardisation assumptions underlying probability statistics. Additionally, the findings are not supposed to be valid for population groups at large. Random sampling is therefore rarely a relevant tool for validity in these studies. Good qualitative research does not exaggerate the extent of the material. During analysis the researchers should have a thorough knowledge of the study material, so that they are aware of the content of the data and what they mean, and so that they are able to ascertain what in the material is relevant when trying to answer the research question. Computer programs are useful for storing, ordering, and retrieving information, but they cannot do the analysis itself (Malteaud, 2006). 2.4 The need for a research questions and aims and how they are developed The researcher takes into account many factors when designing a research study and when choosing a method. The decision to utilize qualitative methods is influenced by issues such as researcher preference or experience (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). A common and valid rationale for choosing qualitative designs is the nature of the research problem. Certain disciplines (e.g., anthropology, nursing), and philosophical orientations (e.g., phenomenology) study phenomena that are better understood with interpretive methods. For example, a nurse researcher may be interested in quality of life. Because there are many influences on this complex concept, a qualitative approach that allows the participants to tell their stories in their own words may be more appropriate. The qualitative researcher engages in prolonged contact 2.5 Limitations of qualitative research Conceptually, the ethical considerations for the true experiment and grounded theory are the same the safety and rights of humans. Ethical concerns are a responsibility of the individual researcher and the profession. Professionals are responsible to one another and to society for upholding ethics (Erikson 1970). The impact of potential harm to consider in ethical decision making should go beyond the obvious to include: (1) the research staff, (2) contacts (family and friends) of the participants, (3) effects of publication, and (4) long-term effects of the potential research results; the concern in each case should be for the physical and psychological health of anyone involved. III. Practical example This study selects a research problem associated with the quality of education at their schools. The quality of education may have different dimensions to describe. It will be more appropriate to describe different perspectives by different students. Thus a qualitative research design to conduct structured interviews with various students will be appropriate. Here the nature of the qualitative research place the researcher in the process of research and thus a caution must be made when interpreting and analysing the data. Some ethical issues associated with the research problem may include (1) revealing the identity of the students in writing research report, (2) results effect on the respective schools and administrators, and (3) long-term problem which may arise from publication of the results of the study. IV. Conclusion This study examines the qualitative research method and data analysis. The study finds that the selection of qualitative research methods depends on the research question on specific problem. The characteristics of the qualitative research are : (1) Subjectivity valued, (2) multiple realities, (3) discovery, description, understanding, (4) interpretative, (5) organismic, (6) whole is greater than the parts, (7) report rich narrative, (8) researcher part of research process, (9) participants, and (10) context dependent. Reflexivity, transferability, and interpretation and analysis are three challenges faced by qualitative researchers. Purposeful or theoretical sampling are commonly done in qualitative research method. Researchers must carefully select sampling because it will lead to generalizability of the findings and results. Read More