What Is Procrastination and Why Does It Matter - Literature review Example

Literature Review: Procrastination Procrastination refers to the act of putting off, avoiding, or postponing a task or an action which is within one’s control (Tuckman and Sexton, 1989). Most individuals have daily activities and responsibilities which they often seek to avoid. Various individuals may procrastinate on different tasks including homework or other school requirements and other people may procrastinate on their work (Akinsola, et.al., 2007). According to Lawless (2011), academic procrastination is seen when a person would delay the completion of home work or course assignments, including exam preparations. Lawless (2011) also declares that the responsibility for school work is first placed on parents, later to be shifted to the student himself. This would be one of the reasons why procrastination is at its highest point during the college years (Balkis and Duru, 2009). There are different causes of procrastination for school work, including sports activities and some social activities. In the current age of electronic and digital technology, the internet has become one of the primary reasons for academic procrastination, with students overusing the internet for activities which often do not have to do with school work (Lawless, 2011). The fact that the internet has become easy to access has increased procrastination among students, especially in terms of internet surfing and related usage. Internet dependency among college students has become a common issue not just in industrialized nations, but in other developing countries as well. Chen and Peng (2008) gathered data on Taiwanese university students, assessing the relationship between the students’ internet use and their academic performance. Respondent junior students from 156 colleges were recruited. The study included six parts, assessing internet use and academic performance (Chen and Peng, 2008). The researchers classified the students based on the time they allocated to internet use. The results revealed that the non-heavy users had better grades in school as compared to the heavy internet users (Chen and Peng, 2008). Moreover, the heavy internet users usually went through more academic issues as compared to the non-heavy internet users (Chen and Peng, 2008). There are different theories seeking to explain why the overuse of the internet can impact the academic performance of students. Young (1998) discusses that where students spend too much time on the internet, they lose time supposedly devoted to homework, studying, and sleeping and with less time allocated for these school activities, their grades and academic performance usually suffers. Yen and colleagues (2009) discussed reasons why internet over-users are likely to suffer in their academic life. Their study included the application of the Chen Internet Addiction Scale and the Adult ADHD Self-report Scale. The researchers sought to evaluate whether inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity were associated with internet addiction among college students (Yen, et.al., 2009). The study revealed that attention deficit was positively associated with internet addiction among college students (Yen, et.al., 2009). The study also suggested that ADD side effect of internet addition would likely create difficulties for these addicted individuals to focus on their schoolwork, eventually causing academic difficulties. As the recreational use of the internet has also increased in campuses causing students to suffer in their academic performance, researchers assessed the common qualities of college students with internet addiction (Ko, et.al., 2010). There were 216 students recruited for the study. The respondents were assessed for internet addiction, mostly in relation to risk-taking tendencies and personality issues. Based on the study, about 49% males and 17% females were suffering from internet addiction and these students often suffered from academic difficulties (Ko, et.al., 2010). The study also revealed that with positive emotions felt from internet use, the greater the possibility for students continuing to use the internet and continuing to procrastinate in their school work (Ko, et.al., 2010). The study by Tice and Baumeister (1997) sought to establish whether or not the impact of procrastination would be more severe during stressful times during the semester. They covered undergraduate students, assessing their study habits vis-a-vis procrastination. The study revealed that procrastinators were likely to receive lower grades on their term papers as compared to the non-procrastinators (Tice and Baumeister, 1997). The procrastinators were also more likely to be stressed and were likely to report more visits to health professionals as compared to the non-procrastinators (Tice and Baumeister, 1997; Yang, et.al., 2007). In effect, this study indicates that procrastinating can lead to lower grades as well as health issues for the students. The prevalence and the reasons for academic procrastination were assessed in the study by Ozer and colleagues (2009). Their study evaluated the gender and grade level of 784 Turkish students. About 52% of the participants were determined to be procrastinators. The male participants were likely to procrastinate more than the females, however no significant relationship was seen between the grade level and the prevalence of procrastination (Ozer, et.al., 2009). The male students mostly credited their procrastination to their risk taking habits, as well as rebellion (Ozer, et.al., 2009). These results indicate that males procrastinate because they like taking risks more than their female counterparts. In other words, they like to save their work to the very last minute in order to challenge themselves to still be able to complete the work on time (Kachgal, et.al., 2001). This study reveals that lack of self-control or the lack of self-discipline is not necessarily the reason for individuals procrastinating; rather, procrastination is undertaken because of its excitement factor. Regardless of the causes or reasons behind procrastination, it remains one of the most difficult habits to control and prevent among students (Ozer, et.al., 2009; Chan and Waugh, 2007). Procrastination has been evaluated by various scientists. Previous researchers have considered procrastination to be a personality trait, with some procrastinators considered to have low self-esteem; some also associate procrastination as a character flaw relating to laziness and a lack of self-control (Burka and Yuen, 1983; Ackerman and Gross, 2005). Other studies applying rational choice models declare that what may appear irrational may actually be predictable behaviour (Ariely and Wertenbroch, 2002; Chu and Choi, 2005). Based on a rational choice framework, procrastination is considered a rational personality disorder. It is therefore logical even if it may be an inefficient quality (Areily, 2008). If these conditions are true, it may be possible to predict the kinds of people who are likely given to procrastinate by assessing costs and benefits they face. Moreover, by managing the costs and benefits, it is possible to change the procrastination which often manifests (Areily, 2008). Among rational theorists, the causes for procrastination are based on initial costs which often discourage individuals from starting an activity (Beck, et.al., 2000). Students who have to shell out a significant amount of money for a school project would likely seek alternative activities instead. Individuals usually attribute an unbalanced weight on specific events based on unclear data (Steel, 2007). In effect, even if tests indicate that a certain car is reliable, people are not likely to buy it if another person would complain about the repairs they have put in to a car having a similar brand (Steel, 2007). The experience of other people does not change the brand’s excellent reputation, however, its “salience probably will steer us to an alternative brand” (Zarick and Stonebraker, 2009). The same idea can apply to procrastination. Events and incidents throughout the day are more pressing and future incidents are less clear. The costs for studying in the immediate time are relevant, and the costs of studying much later are unclear (Rabin, et.al., 2011). The relevance of current pressures interferes with current and future costs and establishes behaviour which impacts on long-term interests. Task aversion is another cause for procrastination (Steel, 2007). In general, individuals are not willing to carry out a task which they would not actually want to do, and so, most people prefer to delay (Brownlow, 2000). As such, individuals would likely do anything but the task they should be doing. All other tasks would serve as a diversion for the unwelcome task which should actually be doing (Scher and Osterman, 2003). Uncertainty can also cause delays. It establishes the need for costly planning prior to the initiation of a task. Based on an academic understanding, uncertainty about any task or assignment can sometimes overwhelm a student (Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The uncertainty can practically stop the student from going any further. Added to these factors are the various challenges which go with the task; and in the end, the student is further delayed in his work. Fears about making mistakes can also add to the delay (Klassen, et.al., 2008). Even as individuals would like to resolve the uncertainties, the pressure to make the right moves and decisions can cause one to over think his next move. In some instances, individuals would likely procrastinate about pursuing important goals than pursuing less important ones (O’Donoghue and Rabin, 2001). Steel (2007) discusses that procrastination is a dominant and harmful manner of self-regulatory failure which has not been completely understood. Studies seeking to explain it are therefore based on various related research findings (Steel, 2007; Gropel and Steel, 2008). Based on a meta-analysis on the possible causes and effects of procrastination, neuroticism, rebelliousness, and sensation seeking only represent a weak correlation (Steel, 2007). Stronger correlations include task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, impulsiveness, and facets of self-control including distractibility, and achievement motivation (Steel, 2003). These elements are consistent with the temporary motivation theory which is basically a hybrid of the expectancy theory (Steel, 2007). In the study by Beheshtifar and colleagues (2011), changes in the work, the organization environment, as well as behaviour would likely increase occupational stress among workers. Work-related stress is an issue which often comes from the interaction of individuals and their jobs, often characterized by changes among the people that cause them to carry out functions outside their normal processes (Beheshtifar, et.al., 2011). Effective management of stress in the workplace can be secured in various ways, one of this includes the recognition of the stressors and understanding its impact, and the second being to secure stress prevention and reduction techniques. A factor which often increases work-related stress is procrastination (Beheshtifar, et.al., 2011). Procrastination assesses self-handicapping behaviour which gives rise to wasted time, poor quality performance, and increased stress (Beheshtifar, et.al., 2011). As procrastination may have various effects on organizations and individual efficacy, it is crucial for managers to pinpoint the different cases and the reasons for the procrastination, and then secure plans to prevent procrastination. In the paper by Gafni and Geri (2010), procrastination was discussed as the tendency to postpone an activity within one’s control, either to be accomplished to the last possible minute or not at all. Their study assessed procrastination in relation to the completion of various tasks, each having a different deadline. Based on an economic standpoint, it may indeed be more profitable to finish a task the soonest possible time, however, man’s tendency to procrastinate often causes delays on the parts which have a later deadline (Gafni and Geri, 2010). The Gafni and Geri (2010) study covered 120 MBA students who were given assignments. Some were given specific deadlines and others were given a collaborative project which had to be accomplished at the end of the term. Findings indicate that students usually carry out the individual task on time, with hardly any delays (Gafni and Geri, 2010). However, the collaborative project was mostly delayed until the last few weeks before the end of the term. For compulsory tasks, the assignments were usually carried out; however, for voluntary assignments, the tasks were not carried out at all (Gafni and Geri, 2010). This study indicates the habits of students in relation to procrastination. The link between the immediacy of the project and the degree of procrastination is established and the study indicates a direct relationship between these two variables. In effect, the shorter or more immediate the deadline is, the less likely the procrastination is, and vice versa. In the study by Schoar and colleagues (2011), the authors sought to test whether or not procrastination and planning problems affect the performance and work satisfaction of employees. They carried out a randomized controlled experiment with a bank in Colombia in order to shift the frequency with which employees got reminders relating to the accomplishment of goals (Schoar, et.al., 2011). The researchers also secured small in-kind prizes for each week in order to remind them of their goals and the tasks they had to achieve. Loan officers for the treatment group manifested improvements in the accomplishment of their goals, including improved work distribution and higher compensation (Schoar, et.al., 2011). Through the intervention, worker satisfaction and decreased stress levels were also seen. The study indicated that the branch managers and supervisors were helpful individuals in securing improved results, especially as they played a major role in sending out reminders and motivating employees with weekly task accomplishments. These supervisors also assisted employees who were experiencing difficulties in accomplishing their task (Schoar, et.al., 2011). Through this study, it is apparent to note that procrastination is often more apparent in the workplace where there is decreased monitoring and support for employee activities. Fatimah and colleagues (2011) discuss that the current social and economic progression calls for the present generation to be competitive. As such, procrastination seems to be a problem which has a significant impact on them. The research by Fatimah, et.al., (2011) sought to evaluate procrastination among students. Various questionnaires were distributed to 126 students for purposes of this study. Data was assessed, relating variables like gender and ethnicity. Correlations were made between the variables (Fatimah, et.al., 2011). Results indicate that there was no significant difference between the variables among respondents with different gender. For ethnicity however, the t-test indicate a significant difference in relation to competency expectancy, intrinsic motivation, as well as fear of failure (Fatimah, et.al., 2011). There was also a great deal of negative correlation in terms of procrastination and competence expectancy and intrinsic motivation (Fatimah, et.al., 2011). A positive correlation between procrastination and fear of failure was also apparent. In general therefore, procrastination is significantly linked to the fear of failure which can however be managed through competence expectancy and intrinsic motivation. The study by Zeenath and Orcullo (2012) points out that procrastination is a significant and common issue among university and college students. The study sought to assess academic procrastination among undergraduates, including the consequences and coping tools applied by undergraduates to manage academic procrastination. A scale measuring general procrastination among students was used for this study in order to assess the level of procrastination and identify students with a high degree of procrastination (Zeenath and Orcullo, 2012). The study uncovered higher scores from the scale, indicating higher tendencies towards procrastination. The scale has been considered reliable in measuring procrastination as it had a high degree of rest-retest reliability (Zeenath and Orcullo, 2012). The study chose participants who manifested high scores in procrastination, using semi-structured questionnaires to assess their experiences in detail. Major themes which emerged included: personal qualities, boredom, priority, time-management issues, motivation, peer influence, external elements, lecturer teaching style, academic tasks, affective elements, heath effect, and coping styles (Zeenath and Orcullo, 2012). The study specified the affective impact of academic procrastination among students and recommended measures for students who faced issues in relation to academic procrastination. Procrastination is also understood as an action which causes a person to voluntarily delay a specific course of action even with the expected negative consequences of the delay (Day, et.al., 2000). Various researchers proclaim that procrastination often occurs among undergraduate students (Day, et.al., 2000; Klassen, et.al., 2008). Quantitative researches have made correlations on procrastination in relation to measures of depression, low self-esteem, anxiety, and lack of confidence (Fee and Tangney, 2000). Other studies also indicate that students who procrastinate often utilize self-handicapping in order to protect themselves (Beck, et.al., 2000; Ferrari and Tice, 2000). Under these conditions, individuals likely self-handicap by creating obstacles for themselves including poor preparation or lack of sleep in order to excuse their poor academic or work performance; thereupon, they can make use of these reasons to feel less of a failure in their activities (Fee and Tangey, 2000). Academic procrastination among college students has been evaluated several times by researchers and there are various common findings on procrastination (Wong, et.al., 2012; Klassen, et.al., 2008). Despite these studies evaluating the causes of procrastination, there is still a need to assess the causes of procrastination. Other authors also declare the need to assess the affective impact of academic procrastination including its overall outcomes on student performance (Ferrari, et.al., 1998). Moreover, Yaakub (2000) declares that even if various studies have been carried out in developing countries on the impact on procrastination, studies covering other regions of the world, including developing countries are still limited. In one study in Malaysia, 287 students were asked to evaluate themselves on when they usually prepare for their examinations (Yaakub, 2000). The author revealed that 80% of the students procrastinate with 32.5% students preparing for their exam about two weeks in advance and 20% preparing at the very last minute. Some students prepared for their exams only after they finished all of their assignments; others only studied for their exams depending on their mood (Yaakub, 2000). In effect, most students participated in some form of procrastination before their exams. This study now seeks to consider procrastination, mostly its causes and impact as well as its expected outcomes. Specifically, the following research question shall be proposed: 1. Common causes of academic procrastination among first year undergraduate students in (name of school/s). 2. Impact of academic procrastination on the academic performance of first year undergraduate students in (name of school/s). References Ackerman, D. and Gross, B., 2005. My instructor made me do it: Task characteristics of procrastination. Journal of Marketing Education, 27(5), pp. 5-13. Akinsola, M., Tella. A. and Tella. A., 2007. Correlates of academic procrastination and mathematics achievement of university undergraduate students. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics. Science & Technology Education, 3 (4), p. 364. Areily, D., 2008. Predictably irrational. New York: Harper. Ariely, D. and Wertenbroch, K., 2002. Procrastination, deadlines and performance: Self-control by precommitment. Psychological Science, 13(3), pp. 219-224 Balkis, M. and Duru, E., 2009. Prevalence of academic procrastination behavior among pre-service teachers, and its relationship with demographics and individual preferences. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 5(1), p. 19. Beck, B., Koons, S., and Milgrim, D., 2000. Correlates and consequences of behavioral procrastination: The effects of academic procrastination, self-consciousness, self-esteem, and self-handicapping. Ferrari, J.R., & Pychyl, T.A. (eds.). Procrastination: Current Issues and New Directions [Special Issue]. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 2000, 15 (5): 167–184. Beheshtifar, M., Hoseinifar, H., and Moghadam, M., 2011. Effect procrastination on work-related stress. European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 38, pp. 59-65. Brownlow, S., 2000. Putting off until tomorrow what is better done today: Academic procrastination as a function of motivation towards college work. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 15(5), pp. 15-34. Burka, J. and Yuen, L., 1983. Procrastination: Why you do it, what to do about it. Reading, MA. Addison-Wesley. Chan, M. and Waugh, R., 2007. Factors affecting student participation in the online learning environment at the Open University of Hong Kong. The Journal of Distance Education / Revue de lÉducation à Distance, 21(3), pp. 23-38. Chen, Y. and Peng, S., 2008). University students Internet use and its relationships with academic performance, interpersonal relationships, psychosocial adjustment, and selfevaluation. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(4), pp. 467-469. Chu, A. and Choi, J., 2005. Rethinking procrastination: Positive effects of "active" procrastination on attitudes and performance. Journal of Social Psychology, 145(3), pp. 245-264. Day, V., Mensink, D., and O’Sullivan, M., 2011. Patterns of academic procrastination. Journal of College Reading and Learning [online]. Available at: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3247/is_2_30/ai_n28777845/ [Accessed 09 February 2013]. Fatimah, O., Lukman, Z., Khairudin, R., Wan Shahrazad, S., et.al., 2011. Procrastination’s Relation with Fear of Failure, Competence Expectancy and Intrinsic Motivation. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum, 19, pp. 123 – 127. Fee, R. and Tangney, J., 2000. Procrastination: A means of avoiding shame or guilt? Ferrari, J.R., & Pychyl, T.A. (eds.). Procrastination: Current Issues and New Directions [Special Issue]. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15 (5), pp. 167–184. Ferrari, J. and Tice, J., 2000. Procrastination as a self-handicap for men and women: A task avoidance strategy in a laboratory setting. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, pp. 73-83. Ferrari, J., Keane, S., Wolfe, R., and Beck, B., 1998. Antecedents and consequences of academic excuse-making: Examining individual differences in procrastination. Research in Higher Education, 39 (2), pp.199-215. Gafni, R. and Geri, N., 2010. Time management: procrastination tendency in individual and collaborative tasks. Interdisciplinary Journal of Information, Knowledge, and Management 5, pp. 1-11 Gropel, P. and Steel, P., 2008. A mega-trial investigation of goal setting, interest enhancement, and energy on procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences 45, pp. 406–411 Kachgal, M., Hansen, L. and Nutter, K., 2001. Academic procrastination prevention/intervention strategies and recommendations. Journal of Developmental Education, 25, pp. 14-24. Klassen, R., Krawchuck, L., and Rajani, S., 2008. Academic procrastination of undergraduates: Low self-efficacy to self-regulate predicts higher levels of procrastination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, pp. 915-931. Klassen, R., Krawchuck, L., and Rajani, S., 2008. Academic procrastination of undergraduates: Low self-efficacy to self-regulate predicts higher levels of procrastination. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, pp. 915-931. Ko, C., 2010. The characteristics of decision making, potential to take risks, and personality of college students with Internet addiction. Psychiatry Research, 175(1-2), pp. 121-125. Lawless, A., 2011. The impact of procrastination and internet use on college students’ academic performance. Xavier University [online]. Available at: http://digitalspace.xavier.edu/bitstream/handle/2374.XAV/1033/LawlessAmanda.pdf [Accessed 09 February 2013]. O’Donoghue, T. and Rabin, M., 2000. The economics of immediate gratification. Journal of Behavioral Decision-making, 13, pp. 233-250. Onwuegbuzie, A., 2004. Academic procrastination and statistics anxiety. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 29(1), pp. 3-19. Özer, B., Demir, A., and Ferrari, J., 2009. Exploring academic procrastination among Turkish students: Possible gender differences in prevalence and reasons. The Journal of Social Psychology, 149(2), pp. 241–257. Rabin, L., Fogel, J., and Nutter-Upham, K., 2011. Academic procrastination in college students: The role of self-reported executive function. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(3). Scher, S. and Osterman, N., 2003. Procrastination, conscientiousness, anxiety and goals: Exploring the measurement and correlates of procrastination among school-aged children. Psychology in Schools, 39(4), pp. 385-398. Schoar, A., Cadena, X., Cristea, A., Delgado- Medrano, H., et.al., 2011. Fighting procrastination in the workplace: An experiment [online]. Available at: http://www.mit.edu/~aschoar/Fighting%20Procrastination%20in%20the%20Workplace-03-11.pdf [Accessed 09 February 2013]. Steel, P., 2003. The nature of procrastination. University of Calgary, 2(1), p. 3. Steel, P., 2007. The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133 (1): pp. 65-94. Tice, D. and Baumeister, F., 1997. Longitudinal study of procrastination, performance, stress, and health: The costs and benefits of dawdling. Psychological Science, 8(6), pp. 454-458. Tuckman, B. and Sexton, T., 1989. The effect of feedback on procrastination. Los Angeles: American Psychological Association. Wong, B., 2012. Metacognitive awareness, procrastination and academic performance of university students in Hong Kong. University of Leicester. Young, K., 1998. Caught in the Net: How to recognize signs of Internet addiction and a winning strategy for recovery. New York: Wiley. Yaakub, N., 2000. Procrastination among students in institutes of higher learning: Challenges for k-economy [online]. Available at: http://mahdzan.com/papers/procrastinate/default.asp [Accessed 09 February 2013]. Yang, X., Yan, L., Tan, C., and Teo, H., 2007. Students’ participation intention in an online discussion forum: Why is computer-mediated interaction attractive? Information & Management, 44, pp. 456–466. Yen, J., Yen, C., Chen, C., Tang, et.al., 2009. The association between adult ADHD symptoms and Internet addiction among college students: The gender difference. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(2), pp. 187-191. Zeenath, S. and Orcullo, D., 2012. Exploring academic procrastination among undergraduates. IPEDR, 47(9), pp. 1-5. Zarick, L. and Stonebraker, R., 2009. I’ll do it tomorrow: The logic of procrastination. College Teaching 57(4), pp. 211-215 Read More