The Capability of Project Managers - Coursework Example

The Systems Approach to Project Management A project, in general terms, entails processes, strategies and resources and that completing it within a target time frame and with its objectives completely realized may prove to be overwhelming for the project manager. Project plans are designed in order to successfully navigate the web of activities involved. Ideally, it will allow a project to trudge on with each phase and stage, culminating in the realization of its targets. However, the world is not perfect and that disruptions and distractions occur, undermining a projects success in varying degrees. Cioffi (2006) found that tasks "typically have nonlinear relationship and that realistically, iterative tasks produce rework, which will increase as fatigue affect productivity and quality" (p.290). There are numerous other pitfalls, errors, risks and challenges aligned with the substance of Murphys Law, which prescribes that if things will go wrong, they would go wrong. This is especially true in highly complex and innovative projects. The concept of systematic approach to project management is an important aspect in addressing this dilemma or to the attempts in designing effective project management with complicated strategies, techniques and methods. This particular approach has gained traction among project managers and experts in recent years with the increasing understanding of project management and its dynamics. The central principle is based on the fact that it considers project management as a complex management process as opposed to the traditional perception that it is merely a set of techniques (Walker, 2006, p.66). A systems approach to project management is expected to increase a projects likelihood of achieving its targets and improving on the capability of project managers to control and ensure positive performance and outcome. Project Management In order to understand the impact of systems approach, it is important to explain what project management is. This is not difficult because the subject attracts attention from academics and experts, resulting to a comprehensive body of literature investigating this theme. Based on what has been written, it appears that an effective discourse on project management requires an explanation of what project is, the concept of management and the nature of organizations in general. Organizations, of course, are companies, firms, groups or departments that produce goods or provide services. Andersen (2009) pointed out that this means organizational operation entails the completion of a set of tasks in order to produce or provide (p.9). These are now the projects and in order to accomplish them, organizations traditionally rely on the organizational structure and communication, with the expectation that workers with different function will logically achieve objectives. However, tasks and projects can be typified by unforeseen risks and problems that emerge in their duration. That is why organizations adopt the project approach, which is seen as highly efficient and effective method in the management of both tasks and risks within a specific project (Andersen, p.9). Management, for its part, is consisted of the organization of resources and the work so that goals and targets are achieved. According to Andersen, management provides the framework by which work and the organization are harnessed in order to deliver a composite result (p.6). Walker provided a specific definition of project management, opting to explain it in terms of the traditional project management and the soft technique. The traditional technique also known as the hard system approach consider project management as the quantitative techniques in project planning, scheduling and control whereas the soft system approach focuses on project management as a process that consider factors such as human behavior in addition to techniques such as the scientific method (p.66). Based on the body of literature, one could conclude that, overall, project management is composed of varied management styles and activities adopted to ensure effective and successful project performance. In the context of systems approach, management is employed not just to organize resources in order to achieve objectives but also to manage tensions that emerge in the process. This particular aspect necessitated project management and the systems approach to it. Complexities and Innovation Lewis et al., cited several tensions and risks in their argument that project management involve a continuous interplay of preexisting plans and evolving understandings so that conflicts emerging from stability and change are dealt with effectively (p.54) This is echoed in Cioffis work, which explained how projects are completed according to good planning. His work is devoted to explaining project management in the context of the problems that it needs to address, leading to his position that project management is not only consisted of the set of strategies and methods aimed at completing tasks but also the mechanisms involved in responding to unforeseen circumstances and risks. Overall, the consensus among experts is that project management can be explained according to two orientations: 1) planned orientation, which focuses on problem solving; and, 2) practitioner-oriented style, which stresses the importance of project monitoring, evaluation and control (Lewis et al., p.547-548). The current trend is to encompass as much styles as possible, with Laufer (1997) stressing that: In our tough, dynamic, and demanding world, "either/or" approaches are no longer viable… todays challenges of fast change and uncertainty requires "both/and" approaches to thinking and working. Success demands that project leaders adopt both an inward and outward orientation, develop both formal and informal procedures (p.xi). The idea is that tensions and problems are not only inevitable but also necessary in the project management process because it can lead to innovation and competitive advantage. For instance in managing a product development project, it was found that pursuing a multifaceted nature of performance is crucial in achieving project innovation and efficiency (Lewis et al., p.555). Such nature involves a particular fluidity and spontaneity both in the rank and file and management levels that spark creativity. Project management achieves a certain degree of success in this regard. But this is further augmented by the systems approach to this method. As the following discourse would outline, systems approach is an effective model in solving problems, in controlling different variables, conflicts, errors and complexities. Systems Approach Jelinek and Schoonhoven (1990) prescribed that organizations must stress innovation along with how, "they also require great precision and predictability to enable them to master complex design and production details (p.56)." This position highlights two important characters of a complex or innovative projects. The first is the complexity in terms of the involved processes. This is naturally a given in large projects involving many stakeholders and huge resources. But this complexity is also considered a necessity that had to be dealt with and must be fostered for purposes of innovation, efficiency, flexibility and responsiveness. Organizations, in these types of projects, have to cope in order to effectively complete projects and tasks successfully. To this end, they need to exert control over the tensions, risks, errors and other distractions that would consequently emerge in this particular environment in high amount. In order to do all these, organizations have to treat management as a system, which is "a set of interrelated elements that work collectively to achieve some common objectives" (Kohli, 2006, p. 77). This underpins the framework of the systems approach since the model combines things and parts in a logical and interrelated integration so that all elements become a complex and integrated entity (p.77). Schwalbe (2010) offered one of the most concise and comprehensive arguments for the systems approach. She stated that it is “a holistic and analytical approach to solving complex problems that includes using a systems philosophy, systems analysis, and systems management (p.45). She further defined the three core elements of the definition as follows: Systems Philosophy: the overall model for thinking about things as systems, which for their part are interacting components working within an environment to fulfill some purpose. Systems Analysis: the problem solving approach that requires a systematic process. Systems Management: the type of management that addresses the business, technological and organizational issues associated with creating, maintaining, and making changes to a system (p.45). In the context of project management, the systems approach is considered applied when an organization’s management: works according to the systems philosophy; when it uses systems analysis in identifying and addressing opportunities, needs and problems; and, when it employs systems management in its operations and its drive to do what is best for the organization. The systems approach is based on the General Systems Theory developed in the scientific field, which is a theoretical model that supposedly has universal applications (see Fig. 1). In the context of project management, the theory establishes how a project management system is characterized by relationships and ensuring that they are integrated. Kohli (2006) explained that: [It] is concerned with the management of interrelated internal operating systems or subsystems as well as responding to external environmental changes introduced by the organizations of client, stakeholders, (consultants) and others (p.78). Fig. 1: Sample Systems Approach Model (Kohli, p.78) Systems approach can also be explained in the context of the contingency theory of the organization. Walker, for instance, explained that an organization is "a function of the task to be carried out and the environment within which it has to be performed (p.68). This is aligned with the General Systems Theory in its focus on relationships. For the contingency theory, relationships as well as status is considered as profit motive (Walker, p.68). Then, systems theory is also supported by resource dependency theory in the sense that it maintains how firms adapt their structures according to external variables (Walker, p.81). This results to lesser choices, freedom and authority for managers because of their dependency to the environment that provide resources. The systems approach enable managers to effectively manage such dependency so that some semblance of control and authority is achieved. The resource dependency theory also highlights the complexities of the environment where the projects have to operate in. According to Walker, "in circumstances where the indirect and direct environmental influences act in a conflicting manner, the project management process will be required to attempt to resolve the conflict" (p.81). The systems approach provides the framework by which managers can accomplish this. The level of control and integration and the nature of the model to welcome pluralities and tensions, ensure that managers can steer projects to its successful completion. The theories that underpin systems theory, particularly those that focus on relationships, demonstrate and establish how the systems approach to project management can address an asymmetrical or multifaceted nature of a project. In this respect, Walker outlined as he quoted Scott that: Relational approaches celebrate process over structure, becoming over being. What is being processed varies greatly. In some versions it is symbols and words, in others, relationships or contracts, in still others, assets. But in relational approaches if structure exists it is because they are continually being created and recreated (p.68). The lesson learned from these theories and principles is that today, there is a growing trend wherein systems are increasingly being applied to organizations, with high degrees of success. Organizations are becoming complex structures with the constant need for innovation and the emergence of variables such as technology and the changes in external environment. These underscore the relevance of the systems approach across most project management initiatives today regardless of industries and objectives. This can be demonstrated in the case of the United Kingdoms drive to improve the performance of some of its public sector initiatives. Systems Approach and Control: The UK Experience The systems approach to project management is being employed in UK’s public sector, which is perceived to be drastically failing because of several institutional weaknesses. Gregory (2007) identified some of these such as the erosion of the quality of education, how four of the governments flagship hospitals lost their 3-star status in 2004, with 11 others poised to suffer similar fate; and, how majority of the policy forces in England and Wales failed to meet the standards set by the Home Office in terms of addressing crime (p.1503). The issue being raised is that despite measures and initiatives taken in order to address the problems, the trend persists. Experts have identified that current methods and strategies in achieving better performance are actually preventing the system from being effective. What they accomplish, instead, is impose heavy administrative burden as the focus is diffused into several short term and big events, detracting the system from what it is supposed to do (Gregory, p. 1504). Vestiges of the system approach to project management began to emerge as policymakers began to explore pluralistic perspectives with the identification of severe disorganization, driven by the increase in complexities in each of these initiatives. Commenting on this development, Miller and Skidmore (2004) stated: [Today], the task for organizational leaders is to make the whole puzzle more visible and therefore less threatening; to find new ways of surfacing and combining the views and aspirations of as many people within their organization as possible (p.70) Recognizing the extent by which projects became complex processes, policymaking began focusing on the control aspect. As the UK embraced the pluralistic perspective to management and of transforming inputs into outputs, the systems approach became the logical model for reform. Gregory outlined this as he contextualized the link of control to the systems approach. He stressed: Control is a key systems concept and systems thinking [that] can help managers come to understand that work is all about changing and managing the interactions between system variables in order to bring about more desirable emergent properties and maximize the performance of the whole rather than parts (p.1506). Gregory highlighted an important character of a complex project, in his comment over the UK example – that it is ever changing and ever expanding, with interactions facilitated by interrelated variables. Having established the breadth of the initiatives, including the problems and challenges entailed, the government developed a series of standards and measures in order to improve performance. This can be classified as an innovative measure and these operated within five basic systems approach principles: 1. emphasis on the performance of the whole system; 2. identify what the system exists to do; 3. measures must be designed to improve performance; 4. ensure the long-term viability of the system; and, 5. must be participatory in nature. A specific example of initiatives pursued to reform the UK public sector is the protocols introduced in construction procurement being implemented by the Office of Government Commerce. These protocols are innovations that result from the above principles. When Hall and Holt conducted a study of 122 completed construction projects within a two-year period, they found that because of good practices linked to the reforms in project management, public construction procurement has markedly and continuously increased (p.273). A model called payoff function developed by Pich, Loch and De Meyer (2002) confirmed the efficacy of the systems approach to project management by emphasizing that it is more effective in covering not just adequate but also accurate information about states of the world and action effects (p.1008). States of the world is especially relevant given the fact that it is all about the interactions of actions, variables in a fast changing environment and complications entailed in the fluidity of relationships. The UK experience highlights the inefficiency of the traditional model of project management. This is evidenced in the manner by which public policy, pursuing innovation as a tool for reform, is increasingly shifting towards models that focus on the performance of the whole system as well as the interactions therein. This is a far cry from the old approaches, which emphasized the performance of the parts. Pich, Loch and de Meyers model has put the system approach to project management in context by explaining that it assumes two important capabilities. The first is the capability for learning, that when problems are identified and solved, the project managers can effectively modify strategy. Secondly, there is the capability for "selectionism", which is all about the pursuit of multiple approaches and choosing the best (p.1021). Soft Systems Model Of particular interest to this paper is the soft systems model or SSM, which has been employed by numerous managers to correct disorganized and failing projects. These types of projects evolve into complex cases because of disruptions to the plan and deviations in activities, compromising the overall management strategy. To demonstrate this, one could turn to Winters (2006) account of an SSM intervention a to real-world project management restructuring initiative, involving Tesco Stores Ltd. Specifically, the SSM initiative addressed a project called Branch Specific Ranging or BSR, which is aimed to range Tescos stores much more specifically to the local areas in which the stores are trading (p.804). It was initiated in the early 1990s and was expected to be a simple task. However, by the time Winter (2006) was called to intervene, the project was a disorganized mess, "becoming an IT project rather than a cross-functional business project (p.804)." The project was not only in disarray but that it has lost its overarching objective. In order to solve the dilemma, Winter developed a two-day workshop in a pilot store (see Fig. 2). Fig. 1: Winter’s Workshop Schematic (Winter, p.806) The workshop was considered a success because it was able to facilitate the manner by which the project plan was brought on track. It worked around the principle that the organization involved an ever-changing outcome of social processes and interactions in which human participants negotiate and renegotiate with each others their respective perceptions and the manner by which they interpret the world (p.810). The workshop was not a sophisticated change intervention mechanism. Instead, it was a simple solution developed with the understanding of human behavior and the organization with all its processes. According to Winter, the SSM intervention was merely an idea that only needed to take root and flourish through engagement and participation of those who joined and, ultimately, it helped the Tesco store and its employees "negotiate and renegotiate their perceptions and interpretations of BSR in a more organized way, enabling purposeful action to be taken (p.810)." Conclusion All in all, the systems approach to project management is crucial in projects that involve complexity for one fundamental reason. It is an excellent framework for integration. Complex projects entail fragmentation – with the sheer number of participants and resources involved - and a requirement for interdependency at the same time in order for the project’s plan and strategies to truly work. Systems approach offers project managers a high degree of control because of its focus on the process, on the system as a whole and on human behavior. This aspect leads us to the reason why it is also good for projects involving innovation. The capability of the framework to withstand and control conflicts, tensions, pressures, fluidity and changes, makes the approach conducive to creativity, which eventually leads to innovation. References Andersen, E., Grude, K., and Haug, T., 2009. Goal Directed Project Management: Effective Techniques and Strategies. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Cioffi, D.F., 2006. Completing Projects According to Plans: An Earned-Value Improvement Index. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 57(3), pp. 290-295. Gregory, A., 2007. Target Setting, Lean Systems and Viable Systems: A Systems Perspective on Control and Performance Measurement. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 58(11), pp. 1503-1517. Hall, M., and Holt, R., 2003. Developing a Culture of Performance Learning in U.K. Public Sector Project Management. Public Performance and Management Review, 26(3), pp263-275. Jelinek, M., and Schoonhoven, C., 1990. The innovation marathon: Lessons from high technology firms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kohli, U., 2006. Project Management Handbook. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Laufer, A., 1997. Simultaneous management: Managing projects in a dynamic environment. Boston: AMACOM. Lewis, M., Welsh, A., Dehler, G., and Green, S., 2002. Product Development Tensions: Exploring Contrasting Styles of Project Management. The Academy of Management Journal, 45(3), pp.546-564. Miller, P., and Skidmore, P., 2004. Disorganization: Why Future Organizations must Loosen up. London: DEMOS. Pich, M., Loch, C. and de Meyer, A., 2002. On Uncertainty, Ambiguity, and Complexity in Project Management. Management Science, 48(8), pp.1008-1023. Schwalbe, K., 2010. Information Technology Project Management. New York: Cengage Learning. Walker, A., 2007. Project Management in Construction. 5th ed. Oxford: Blackwell. Winter, M., 2006. Problem Structuring in Project Management: An Application of Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). The Journal of Operational Research Society, 57(7), pp.802-812. Read More