Firefighting Methods after the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 - Research Paper Example

 FSE-101: Fire Prevention Research Project Table of Contents No. Topic Page 1. Summary 2 2. Introduction 3 3. Event History 4 4. Aftermath 6 5. Impact on Codes/Procedures 7 6. Impact on Current codes/ Procedures 8 7. Conclusion 11 8. References 12 The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 Summary The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 occurred more than 100 years ago. Yet that fateful day of April 18, 1906 has important implications and lessons for firefighting safety procedures, equipment and methods used. It is sad to note that as many as 25,000 buildings were destroyed and in excess of 375 people died or were injured, with around 300,000 of San Francisco’s total population of 410,000 rendered homeless. This natural disaster was compounded by a disappointing response to fires caused by the earthquake. The paucity of water meant that more dangerous methods such as dynamite blasting had to be used. However this proved grossly ineffective and in fact resulted in 90 percent of the post earthquake destruction that was totally manmade. Lack of proper training of those in emergency services such as firefighting and medical services, lack of national standards on size of equipment and facilities and the insistence of insurance companies to recompense only fire related damages rather than those caused by the earthquake could have further led to more fires in order to enforce claims. However we can learn much about human nature and disaster response planning and failure from this historical event that has important implications for firefighting and safety standards. Introduction A natural calamity such as an earthquake is evidenced by a sudden and violent shaking of the ground. The underlying cause is a movement of the Earth’s crust or Teutonic plates. Usually the edges of these plates are marked by fractures in the earth’s crust that are called faults. When the Teutonic plates collide against each other or slide past each other, an earthquake results. These shifting masses send powerful shockwaves across the affected area, causing damage in the form of destruction and fires in manmade structures like buildings and other places of office or business importance. Earthquakes could also be accompanied by landslides, volcanic eruptions, shifts in landmass and cracks and fissures in the earth’s surface as well as avalanches and tsunamis in the seacoasts. It is estimated at there are 50 earthquakes every day across the globe, averaging around 20,000 a year. Most earthquakes of magnitude 4-5 or less are not even considered that important, while those of 6 and above are readily reported in the media. To date, 2007 has been the worst year since 1900 when data began to be collected, since we had 4 Magnitude 8 or above earthquakes recorded that year. The magnitude of an earthquake can be measured by the amplitude of seismic waves recorded on a seismograph. It is estimated that each number on the Richter Scale corresponds to a release of thirty times that much energy through the Earth’s crust at the epicenter, below which lies the hypocenter containing the Teutonic plates. Thus the amount of destruction and loss caused by an earthquake also depends on the location and time of the tremors and the quality of the land surface that it affects (VTAide.com website, 2012). Event History San Francisco is no stranger to earthquakes and tremors and many have occurred along what is called the San Andreas Fault. However, the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 was one of the worst natural disasters in US history particularly of the 20th century and specifically in California. While various estimates put its magnitude at between 7.7 and 8.25 on the Richter scale, the most generally accepted magnitude is 7.9. It occurred at 5:12 am in the early morning of April 18, 1906. People were rudely awakened from their slumber by this sudden and unfortunate turn of events, groping in the dark while fires raged through buildings, the earth shook again and again and there was dust, smoke and fog adding to the confusion. The epicenter of the quake was taken to be Mussel Rock, some 2 miles offshore. Yet the shaking was felt along 296 miles eastward and northward of the San Andreas Fault. The loss of life from the earthquake and resulting fires was estimated to add up to 3,000 people. The only recent comparison to this at the time was the loss from the 1900 Galveston Hurricane or Flood which occurred in Texas on 08 September 1900.The Great Baltimore Fire of 1904 occurring in Baltimore Maryland on Feb 7 and 8, 1904 had stressed the need for standardized equipment and facilities such as fire hoses and hydrants to put out a fire quickly and more effectively. Yet the lack of water hydrants and water supply appeared evident in this calamity, begging for other response measures that were decidedly more dangerous (History.com website, 2012). Early estimates put the death toll at only 375- the Government was eager to downplay the destruction as it felt that reporting more accurate figures would affect real estate values as well as impact rebuilding efforts. It is estimated that as many as 3,000 unreported deaths occurred in Chinatown alone- however 190 deaths were also attributed to the Bay Area. Havoc and destruction was reported in Santa Rosa and San Jose. Between 227,000 and 300,000 people out of a total population of 410,000 were left homeless- most chose to shift to Berkeley and Oakland. The Presidio, Golden Gate Park, the Panhandle, Ingleside and North Beach were covered with makeshift tents as much as two years later. It is estimated that the economic damage was around US$400 million at the time. At that time, San Francisco was the ninth largest city in terms of population and the most developed on the West Coast. The previous 60 years or so had witnessed this progress, wherein San Francisco developed into a financial, cultural and trading center, a seaport and gateway to the Pacific. But now over 80 percent of the city was lost due to the earthquake and fires. Although it did not take too long for the locals to muster their strength and rebuild the city, trade and commerce had to be diverted to Los Angeles in the meantime, turning it into an important urban settlement area. It was subsequently discovered that the San Andreas Fault ran close to Los Angeles as well. The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 was probably one of the first natural disasters in the USA to be recorded via film and photography. The science of seismology was blossoming at the time and this 1906 event led to an improvement in our knowledge about earthquakes and what to do in such a disaster situation. But it is amazing to note that as damaging as the earthquake was, the real destruction was caused by the subsequent fires that raged through the city. The Fire Chief Dennis Sullivan had perished in the initial quake. Dynamited buildings added to the mess as fires burned for four days and four nights after the earthquake had struck. At least 50 fires were reported the morning of April 19. The Chinatown area with many wooden structures was one of the first to be set ablaze, and paucity of water and many gas leaks prompted the mayor to authorize firefighters and helpers to allow blasting by dynamite to assist in putting out the fires and prevent them from spreading- this ineffective measure however contributed to more destruction and mayhem. The use of dynamite is today found very ineffective in reducing mishaps and has been abandoned. Aftermath It is estimated that as much as 90 percent of the total destruction was in fact caused by fires and incorrect dynamiting of buildings by untrained hands following the natural disaster. It is true that some 30 or more fires caused by ruptured gas lines were responsible for the destruction of 25,000 buildings along 490 blocks of the city. Other fires were started when untrained firefighters attempted unsuccessfully to create firebreaks by demolishing buildings with dynamite- as a result more than 50 percent of the surviving structures were also destroyed. The practice of insurers to indemnify policyholders against fire damage but not against earthquake damage also lent a hand to the self-destruction of homes and office buildings by their owners. It was widely whispered that it would only be possible to get indemnified for losses against the earthquake damage if the properties were also destroyed by fire- leading to people setting fire to their properties and homes. The Army was called in to protect the city and its residents from looting and guarded valuable buildings such as the Post Office, the jail and Royal Mint. The 4,000 troops under command of General Greeley provided emergency services like food, clothing and shelter to the thousands of displaced people on the streets and also helped the firefighters in dynamiting sites as deemed necessary. The soldiers finally handed over command to the civic authorities on 1 July 1906. Mayor Schmitz was forced to issue a Shoot to Kill order preventing both soldiers and survivors from looting in the aftermath of the earthquake. The Army also helped build over 5,000 temporary shelters that housed 20,000 displaced survivors. At their height they accommodated more than 16,400 people but most had cleared out by 1907. The last refugee camp was closed on 30 July 1908. Each shelter cost $100 to build and was let out at a monthly rent of $2 leading towards a full payment of $50. Reconstruction following the earthquake was initially stalled due to the high standards of rebuilding insisted upon by building control authorities- but this led to a laxity of standards later when it was decided to complete most of the rebuilding in a hurry to be able to accommodate and host the Panama Pacific International Exposition in 1915, by which time indeed no damage to the city was to be seen (San Francisco Museum Website, 2012). Impact on Codes/Processes The earthquake and fire losses from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake had an immediate and long lasting effect on building reconstruction, insurance and firefighting codes of the time. Architect and urban planner Daniel Burnham proposed a radical and magnificent rebuilding of the city, which was shelved due to lack of time and money. However some of his ideas were implemented such as Fisherman’s Wharf, a subway under Marble Street, Coit Tower, wider streets and arterial thoroughfares. Insurance companies were faced with claims up to $250 million but were able to almost pay the entire amount in full due to reinsurance agreements. Some 137 insurance firms and 17 re-insurers were involved. 20 firms went bankrupt. The insurance claims were made out on the basis of fire losses, since they did not cover earthquake damages. But the California Standard Form of insurance policy was amended in August 1909 as an infuriated public demanded coverage from earthquake losses. The insurance payments also affected interest rates and indirectly led to the Panic of 1907. The use of dynamite has been found very ineffective in reducing mishaps and has since been abandoned. Impact on Today’s Codes/ Processes Firefighting companies in the early days of US history were primarily private or voluntary companies operating for a fee. It was however Governor Peter Stuyvesant of New York City (then New Amsterdam) who in 1648 first appointed Fire Inspectors to punish people who violated building statutes regarding fire prevention and safety. Everybody had a bucket with his name on it that would be used to form a ‘bucket brigade’ in case of fire. Yet most structures burned to the ground. In 1679 Boston imported the first fire engine from London, England. This was followed by insurance companies putting up signs in front of buildings considered a fire risk so that volunteers or professionals could pay heed to them. The steam engine, the use of horses and dogs to assist firemen and the fire alarm box system all are further developments. The use of hoses and fire hydrants were not developed till the 1870s (Afirepro.com website, 2012). Modern firefighting processes, personnel and equipment in the USA are all under the supervision and control of OSHA guidelines. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration agency sets standards for building and site design, access to fire hydrants and other apparatus as needed, as well as recognizing zoning and access problems and other hazards. There are standards for water supply control valves, hosing pumps and connections and sprinkler systems. The location of inlets for fire departments, their number, marking and positions are all mandated by OSHA guidelines for constructing buildings. Voice alarms, communications, notifications and command centers have to be established in the process of fighting a fire. All these precautions and regulations have been enacted to protect the lives and properties of citizens and victims of a fire hazard. Other systems and control procedures that may also have to be brought into action include the radio signals, emergency power systems, air breathing apparatus and smoke control systems- all of which were sorely missing and would have undoubtedly helped rescue and safety efforts at the time of the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 (OSHA, 2006). In fact pre-incident planning right from the very beginning relating to building safety features such as exits and access to power and water, building plans etc will significantly help the firefighters efforts. Then again, knowledge and understanding of the nature of the fire, where located and how caused could help greatly in deciding how to extinguish it. Thanks to all the safety measures presently in practice, the National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA) has been pleased to report a steady decline in fire related deaths in the last ten years. While the rates of firefighter deaths from difficult and larger fires have been steady, the National Association of Fallen Firefighters has developed certain safety initiatives that can further reduce risk of injury or death to these wonderful men and women. The needless destruction of property due to fire as witnessed in the aftermath of the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 could have been largely prevented by: 1. Insurance companies including earthquake damage protection in their insurance policies; 2. The existence of proper building plans and safety features with disaster prevention and recovery features, for instance access to water; 3. Proper training of firefighters and a branch of civic volunteers to help in emergency services such as firefighting, first aid, surveying and communication services; 4. The use of alternative methods to fight against and prevent the spread of fires. Dynamite blasting was blatantly ineffective thereby exacerbating an already bad situation; 5. Proper and strict adherence to safety features and guidelines in the construction of buildings, such as emergency exits, sprinkler systems and voice, radio and visual communication systems. Conclusion We have noted that while the causes of the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 were entirely natural and unpreventable, the sad fact remains that most of the losses were caused by manmade errors in planning, organizing and implementing the rescue efforts. Primarily it was the lack of training in emergency response, reduced access to water, use of improper techniques such as dynamite blasting to unsuccessfully create firebreaks and the insistence of insurance companies to compensate for damages only on the basis of fire losses rather than earthquake related damage that contributed to this fiasco in US history. Nevertheless, the lessons learned from this event over a hundred years ago serve as an eye-opener on what can go wrong and how things can be set right again. References Afirepro.com website (2012). History of firefighting. Accessed on 05 April 2012 at http://www.afirepro.com/history.html History.com website. April 20, 1906: This Day in History. San Francisco firefighters halt massive blaze. Accessed on 05 April 2012 at http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/san-francisco-firefighters-halt-massive-blaze OSHA (2006). Fire Service Features of Buildings and Fire Prevention Systems. Accessed on 05 April 2012 at http://www.osha.gov/Publications/fire_features3256.pdf San Francisco Museum Website (2012). Timeline of the San Francisco Earthquake, April 18-23, 1906. Accessed on 05 April 2012 at http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/06timeline.html VTAide.com website (2012). What is an Earthquake? Accessed on 05 April 2012 at http://www.vtaide.com/png/George/earthquake.htm Read More