Information Technology For Supply Chain Management - Report Example

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT 2007 This report generally covers the area of Supply Chain Management (SCM). Specifically, this outlines the uses of Information Technology (IT) and Information Systems (IS); shows how the advances in Information and Communication Technology have enabled Electronic Supply Chain Management (E-SCM); and highlights the potential benefits and limitations of converting to Electronic Supply Chain Management (E-SCM). Appropriate examples are included to illustrate the points made. I. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) IN SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT (SCM): ITS USES, ADVANCES AND BENEFITS The use of information is of prime importance in every human endeavours, be it in the personal or in the business level. However, this report tackles only the use of information on the business level in relation to supply chain management (SCM). To clearly discuss the uses of information technology (IT) in supply chain management (SCM), the following definitions will be used: Information technology (IT) - the enabling mechanism, by which information is collected, processed and distributed. How we should do it. Supply chain- a collection of physical entities, such as manufacturing plants, distribution centres, conveyances, retail outlets, people and information, which are linked through processes such as procurement or logistics, to supply goods or services from source, through consumption Supply chain management (SCM) - the integration of supplier, distributor and customer logistics requirements into one cohesive process. Logistics - ‘The mission of logistics is to get the right goods or services to the right place, at the right time, and in the desired condition, while making the greatest contribution to the firm.’ Business Logistics Management, 1992. R.H.Ballou One of the most important endeavours that a human being must do is to find a job or work. He/she must strive to work in order to live, and to continue to live in order to work. This is a continuous process wherein he/she must do for a lifetime. One way of doing work is to have your own business or find a job or employment in another business entity like a sole proprietorship, a company, a corporation, or in the government. All these employments use information daily in the conducting any activities related to their respective businesses. Acquiring business information before can easily be handled by the employees within a specific business setup. Business information was then seen to be as a business resource. Business information is very crucial or critical to the success of ones business organization. Business information also contributes considerably in providing the business organization with a competitive advantage. For several decades ago we could safely conclude then that these findings were sufficient and could support a business organization in combating the competition that poses them. However, with the fast growing economy, that is rapidly conducting ones business activity from a simple into a bigger one. The competition among the business organizations also turned complex. Thus, necessitates the strategic use of information and technology emerged. Strategic use of information simply means the use of an additional tool, that is, technology aside from just seeing business information as business resource; considering business information as very crucial or critical to the success of the business organization; and the considerable contribution of business information in providing the business organization with a competitive advantage. The utilization of technology as an additional tool among others will pole-vault the activities of the business organization efficiently and effectively. This will pave way to the growth of the organization in all business aspects. However, appropriate and careful use of technology should be done, as information needs to be managed and planned. To appropriately and carefully manage and plan the use of technology in business information the following qualities of good information should be observed and utilized: accuracy, completeness, relevance, clarity, timely, reliability, communicated appropriately, volume, and cost. The latter qualities of good information purports that business information should be accurate, complete, relevant, clear, time-bound, reliable, appropriately communicated, with the right magnitude or volume, and with the proper cost. Business information are used in transaction systems, management control, decision analysis, and strategic planning. In transaction systems, business information are utilized to initiate and record, to formalize rules, to accommodate large volume of transactions, and to have an operational day to day focus. In management control, business information are utilized for performance measurement; for management feedback; for evaluative, tactical, intermediate-term focus; for evaluating past performance and identification of alternatives; for importance of exception reporting; and used for predicting future problems. In decision analysis, business information are utilized for identification, evaluation and comparison of strategic and tactical alternatives; for modelling and analysis; for tactical, evaluative focus based on future tactical alternatives; for being relatively unstructured and flexible; for the users require more training and expertise, and for emphasis on effectiveness rather than efficiency. In strategic planning, business information are utilized for information support to develop and refine logistics strategy; for long-term in focus, for more abstract and less structured decisions; and for incorporating lower level data collection. In order to fully exploit the use of business information and technology, collectively coined as information technology (IT) in supply chain management (SCM), logistics should be present. Business information is considered to be the key element in logistics. According to Ballou (1992), logistics’ is described as ‘The mission of logistics is to get the right goods or services to the right place, at the right time, and in the desired condition, while making the greatest contribution to the firm’. Historically, the information flow was overlooked, the speed of information exchange was slow, the dependence on paper was found to be unreliable and error prone, the operating costs was high, and the customer satisfaction was low. Currently, the advances in information technology (IT) resulted to reduced costs, and the electronic information resulted to increased opportunities Information technology (IT) solutions for supply chain management (SCM) The following information technology (IT) solutions for supply chain management (SCM) are available in the market: EPOS & EFTPOS; EDI links with suppliers; GIS; hand held terminals; optical scanning/character recognition; FAX; Bar-coding & scanning; Communications (radio frequency, satellite communications); Artificial intelligence (Robotics, Expert systems); and Internet E-commerce. Information technology (IT) benefits for supply chain management (SCM) The following information technology (IT) benefits for supply chain management (SCM) can be achieved: increased productivity, increased customer satisfaction, increased market share, reduced stock levels, reduced lead times, competitive advantage, cost savings, reduced administration, increased security, and enhanced relationships with suppliers. II. INFORMATION SYSTEMS (IS) IN SUPPLY CHAIN MAMAGEMENT (SCM): ITS USES, ADVANCES, BENEFITS The following are definitions that are relevant to the use of information technology (IT) in supply chain management (SCM): Information system is defined as the flow of information in and around an organisation, and between organisations. It refers to the information used, created and stored by an organisation. It is what we should do. Supply chain is defined as a collection of physical entities, such as manufacturing plants, distribution centres, conveyances, retail outlets, people and information, which are linked through processes such as procurement or logistics, to supply goods or services from source, through consumption. Supply chain management (SCM) is defined as the integration of supplier, distributor and customer logistics requirements into one cohesive process. Information System (IS) Models for Supply Chain Management (SCM) The following information system (IS) models are present to help with strategic distribution planning: the inventory policy, the centre of gravity-depot location, the distribution network, the linear programming, the transport planning, and the warehouse simulation. Information System (IS) Solutions for Supply Chain Management (SCM) The following information system (IS) solutions for supply chain management (SCM) are currently available in the market: the depot stock replenishment systems, the warehouse management systems, the transport management systems, and the international distribution system. Each of these information systems (IT) are described below. 1. Depot Stock Replenishment Systems The aim of the depot stock replenishment systems are to initiate movements of appropriate quantities of each product to each stock holding depot at the correct time, to achieve the required in-stock service level. These typically include the following modules: Demand Forecasting Module, and Inventory Management Module. The benefits in using these depot stock replenishment systems are the following: maintain high levels of customer service, reduce stock holding within agreed service levels, reporting by exception, and modelling capabilities. The depot site location is very crucial in the use of the depot stock replenishment systems. The depot should be located in an optimal site location where the depot stock replenishment systems will be used as decision support tools. In selecting an optimal site location the following variable are to be considered: the shipments-particularly the number and size, the transportation rates, the supply sources, and the markets. 2. Warehouse Management Systems The warehouse management systems include the following: the stock rotation control, the space allocation control, the picking order systems, and the hand-held terminals. The following benefits can be achieved in utilizing the warehouse management systems: increased productivity, improved space utilization, more accurate inventory records, improved management information, efficient stock rotation, and more reliable quality control. 3. Transport Management Systems Transport management systems involve routing and scheduling. Routing involves decisions about which road to take and scheduling involves allocating calls to individual vehicles to achieve an optimum result. This is concerned with resource management & cost optimization. The following are the benefits in using the transport management systems can be achieved: improved customer service, improved asset utilization, employee benefits, reduced costs, and greater level of control III. EXAMPLE COMPANY NAME Wal-Mart COMPANY BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION The US-based Wal-Mart ranked first in the global Fortune 500 list in the financial year 2001-02 earning revenues of $219.81 billion. Wal-Mart was the largest retailing company in the world. The company was much bigger than its competitors in the US – Sears Roebuck, K-Mart, JC Penney and Nordstrom combined. In 2002, Wal-Mart operated more than 3,500 discount stores, Sam’s Clubs and Supercenters in the US and more than 1,170 stores in all major countries across the world. The company also sold products on the Internet through its website, walmart.com. Mal-Mart was one of the largest private sector employers in the world, with employee strength of approximately 1.28 million. The company’s founder, Sam Walton had always focused on improving sales, constantly reducing costs, adopting efficient distribution and logistics management systems and using innovative information technology (IT) tools. According to analysts, Wal-Mart was able to achieve a leadership status in the retail industry because of its efficient supply chain management practices. Captain Vernon L. Beatty, aide-de-camp to the commander, Defense Supply Center, Columbus, Ohio said, “Supply chain management is moving the right items to the right customer at the right time by the most efficient means. No one does that better than Wal-Mart.” BACKGROUND NOTE Walton was born in 1918 at Kingfisher, Oklahoma, US. After graduating from the University of Missouri in 1940, Walton worked for the famous retailer, J C Penney. In his first job, Walton had displayed the qualities of a good salesman. He realized the importance of building loyalty among customers as well as employees. In the mid 1940s, Walton gave up his job and decided to set up his own retail store. He purchased a store franchise from Ben Franklin in Newport, Arkansas. It was here that he learnt his first lessons in retailing – offering significant discounts on product prices to expand volumes and increase overall profits. The business was successful and Walton soon acquired a second store within three years. Walton not only looked for opportunities to open stores in other small towns but also explored the possibility of introducing innovative practices such as self-service. As the need for people to manage his stores increased, Walton tried to attract talented and experienced people from other stores. By 1969, Walton had established 18 Wal-Mart stores, reporting an annual sale of $44 million. In mid 1970s, Wal-Mart acquired 16 Mohr-Value stores in Michigan and Illinois. By the late 1970s, the retail chain had established a pharmacy, an auto service center, and several jewellery divisions. In the 1980s, Wal-Mart continued to grow rapidly due to the huge customer demand in small towns, where most of its stores were located. Commenting on the growth of Wal-Mart, Walton said: “When we arrived in these small towns offering low prices every day, customer satisfaction guaranteed, and hours that were realistic for the way people wanted to shop, we passed right by that old variety store competition, with its 45 percent mark ups, limited selection and limited hours.” Wal-Mart stores were located at a convenient place in a big warehouse-type building and targeted customers who bought merchandise in bulk. Customers could buy goods at wholesale prices by becoming members and paying a nominal membership fee. By 1984, there were 640 Wal-Mart stores in the US, generating sales of about $4.5 bn and accruing profit of over $200 mn. Wal-Mart suffered a setback in 1992, when Walton died after a prolonged illness. But it continued its impressive growth in the 1990s, focusing more on establishing its stores overseas. In 1992, Wal-Mart expanded its operation in Mexico by entering into a joint venture with Cifra. Two years later, the company acquired 122 Woolco stores from Woolworth, Canada. By 1997, Wal-Mart had become the largest volume discount retailer in Canada and Mexico. In 1997, Wal-Mart acquired the 21-store German hypermarket chain, Werkauf. Other international expansion efforts included the purchase of Brazilian retailer Lojas Americans’ 40 percent interest in their joint venture, and the acquisition of four stores and additional sites in South Korea from Korea Makro. In January 1999, Wal-Mart expanded its German operations by buying 74 stores of the hypermarket chain, Interspar. The stores were acquired from Spar Handels AG, which owned multiple retail formats and wholesale operations throughout Germany. By 2002, Wal-Mart had emerged as the largest company in the world in terms of revenues. Analysts felt that Wal-Mart had come a long way since 1979, when the company generated annual revenues of more than a billion dollar for the first time. By 1993, the company was doing a billion dollar business in a week and by 2001, it was crossing the billion dollar mark in every 1.5 days. Analysts attributed this phenomenal growth to Wal-Mart’s continued focus on customer needs and reducing costs through efficient supply chain management practices. The company was able to offer a vast range of products at the lowest costs in the shortest possible time. This was possible mainly due to two factors – Wal-Mart’s highly automated distribution centers, which significantly reduced shipping costs and time, and its computerized inventory system, which speeded up the checking out time and recording of transactions. MANAGING THE SUPPLY CHAIN PROCUREMENT AND DISTRIBUTION Wal-Mart always emphasized the need to reduce its purchasing costs and offer the best price to its customers. The company procured goods directly from manufacturers, by passing all intermediaries. Wal-Mart was a tough negotiator on prices and finalized a purchase deal only when it was fully confident that the products being bought were not available elsewhere at a lower price. According to Claude Harris, one of the earliest employees, “Every buyer has to be tough. That is the job. I always told the buyers: ‘You are negotiating for your customer. And your customer deserves the best prices that you can get. Don’t ever feel sorry for a vendor. He always knows what he can sell, and we want his bottom price. ‘We would tell the vendors, ‘Don’t leave in any room for a kickback because we don’t do it here. And we don’t want your advertising program or delivery program. Our truck will pick it up at your warehouse. Now what is your best price?” Wal-Mart spent a significant amount of time meeting vendors and understanding their cost structure. By making the process transparent, the retailer could be certain that the manufacturers were doing their best to cut down costs. Once satisfied, Wal-Mart believed in establishing a long-term relationship with the vendor. In its attempt to drive hard bargains, Wal-Mart did not even spare big manufacturers like Procter & Gamble (P&G). However, the company, generally, preferred local and regional vendors and suppliers. In 1998, Wal-Mart had over 40 distribution centers located at different geographical locations in the US. Over 80,000 items were stocked in these centers. Wal-Mart’s own warehouses directly supplied 85 percent of the inventory, as compared to 50-65 percent for competitors. According to rough estimates, Wal-Mart was able to provide replenishments within two days (on an average) against at least five days for competitors. Shipping costs for Wal-Mart worked out to be roughly 3 percent as against 5 percent for competitors. Each distribution center was divided into different sections on the basis of the quantity of goods received and was managed the same way for both cases and palletized goods. The inventory turnover rate was very high, about once every two weeks for most of the items. Goods meant for distribution within the US usually arrived in pallets, while imported goods arrived in re-usable boxes or cases. In some cases, suppliers delivered goods such as automotive and drug products directly to the stores. About 85% of the goods which were available at the stores passed through the distribution centers. The distribution centers ensured a steady and consistent flow of products to support the supply function. As Wal-Mart used sophisticated barcode technology and hand-held computer systems, managing the center became easier and more economical. Every employee had an access to real-time information regarding the inventory levels of all the products in the center. They had to just make two scans – one to identify the pallet, and the other to identify the location from where the stock had to be picked up. Different barcodes were used to label different products, shelves and bins in a center. The hand-held computer guided an employee with regard to the location of a particular product from a particular bin or shelf in the center. When the computer verified the bin and picked up a product, the employee confirmed whether it was the right product or not. The quantity of the product required from the center was entered into the hand-held computer by the employee and then the computer updated the information on the main server. The hand-held computer also enabled the packaging department to get accurate information about the products to be packed. It displayed all information about the storage, packaging and shipping of a particular product thus, saving time on unnecessary paperwork. It also enabled the center supervisors to monitor their employees closely enabling them to give directions and even guide them even on the move. This enabled the company to satisfy customer needs quickly and improve the level of efficiency of the distribution center management operations. Each distribution center had facilities for maintaining personal hygiene such as shower bath and fitness centers. It also had provision for food, sleep and personal business. The distribution center could also be used for meetings and paperwork. The truck drivers of Wal-Mart sometimes availed these facilities. LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT An important feature of Wal-Mart’s logistics infrastructure was its fast and responsive transportation system. The distribution centers were serviced by more than 3,500 company owned trucks. These dedicated truck fleets allowed the company to ship goods from the distribution centers to the stores within two days and replenish the store shelves twice a week. The truck fleet was the visible link between the stores and distribution centers. Wal-Mart believed that it needed drivers who were committed and dedicated to customer service. The company hired only experienced drivers who had driven more than 300,000 accident-free miles, with no major traffic violation. Wal-Mart truck drivers generally moved the merchandise-loaded trailers from Wal-Mart distribution centers to the retail stores serviced by each distribution center. These retail stores were considered as customers by the distribution centers. The drivers had to report their hours of service to a coordinator daily. The coordinator scheduled all dispatches depending on the available driving time and the estimated time for travel between the distribution centers and the retail stores. The coordinator informed the driver of his dispatches, either on the driver’s arrival at the distribution center or on his return to the distribution center from the retail store. The driver was usually expected to take a loaded truck trailer from the distribution center to the retail store and return back with an empty trailer. He had to dispatch a loaded truck trailer at the retail store and spend the night there. A driver had to bring the trailer at the dock of a store only at its scheduled unloading time, no matter when he arrived at the store. The drivers delivered the trailers in the afternoon and evening hours and they would be unloaded at the store at nights. There was a gap of two hours between unloading of each trailer. For instance, if a store received three trailers, the first one would be unloaded at midnight 12 AM, the second one would be unloaded at 2 AM and the third one at 4 AM. Although, the trailers were left unattended, they were secured by the drivers, until the store personnel took charge of them at night. Wal-Mart received more trailers than they had docks, due to their large volume of business. Wal-Mart maintained a strict vigil over its drivers by keeping a record of their activities through the “Private Fleet Driver Handbook”. The purpose of the book was to educate the drivers with regard to the code of conduct. It also included the terms and conditions regarding the safe exchange of trailers with the store personnel and the safety of Wal-Mart’s property. This book also contained a list of other activities, the non-compliance of which would result in the termination of the driver. To make its distribution process more efficient, Wal-Mart also made use of a logistics technique known as ‘cross-docking.’ In this system, the finished goods were directly picked up from the manufacturing plant of a supplier, sorted out and then directly supplied to the customers. The system reduced the handling and storage of finished goods, virtually eliminating the role of the distribution centers and stores. There were five types of cross-docking. In cross-docking, requisitions received for different goods from a store were converted into purchase or procurement orders. These purchase orders were then forwarded to the manufacturers who conveyed their ability or inability to supply the goods within a particular period of time. In cases where the manufacturer agreed to supply the required goods within the specified time, the goods were directly forwarded to a place called the staging area. The goods were packed here according to the orders received from different stores and then directly sent to the respective customers. To gain maximum out of cross-docking, Wal-Mart had to make fundamental changes in its approach to managerial control. Traditionally, decisions about merchandising, pricing and promotions had been highly centralized and were generally taken at the corporate level. The cross-docking system, however, changed this practice. The system shifted the focus from “supply chain” to the “demand chain,” which meant that instead of the retailer ‘pushing’ products into the system; customers could ‘pull’ products, when and where they needed. This approach placed a premium on frequent, informal cooperation among stores, distribution centers and suppliers with far less centralized control than earlier. INVENTORY MANAGEMENT Wal-Mart had developed an ability to cater to the individual needs of its stores. Stores could choose from a number of delivery plans. For instance, there was an accelerated delivery system by which stores located within a certain distance of a geographical center could receive replenishment within a day. Wal-Mart invested heavily in IT and communications systems to effectively track sales and merchandise inventories in stores across the country. With the rapid expansion of Wal-Mart stores in the US, it was essential to have a good communication system. Hence, Wal-Mart set up its own satellite communication system in 1983. Explaining the benefits of the system Walton said, “I can walk in the satellite room, where our technicians sit in front of the computer screens talking on the phone to any stores that might be having a problem with the system, and just looking over their shoulders for a minute or two will tell me a lot about how a particular day is going. On the screen, I can see the total of the day’s bank credit sales adding up as they occur. If we have something really important or urgent to communicate to the stores and distribution centers, I, or any other Wal-Mart executive can walk back to our TV studio and get on that satellite transmission and get it right out there. I can also go every Saturday morning around three, look over these printouts and know precisely what kind of work we have had.” Wal-Mart was able to reduce unproductive inventory by allowing stores to manage their own stocks, reducing pack sizes across many product categories, and timely price markdowns. Instead of cutting inventory across the board, Wal-Mart made full use of its IT capabilities to make more inventories available in the case of items that customers wanted most, while reducing the overall inventory levels. Wal-Mart also networked its suppliers through computers. The company entered into collaboration with P&G for maintaining the inventory in its stores and built an automated re-ordering system, which linked all computers between P&G and its stores and other distribution centers. The computer system at Wal-Mart stores identified an item which was low in stock and sent a signal to P&G. The system then sent a re-supply order to the nearest P&G factory through a satellite communication system. P&G then delivered the item either to the Wal-Mart distribution center or directly to the concerned stores. This collaboration between Wal-Mart and P&G was a win-win proposition for both because Wal-Mart could monitor its stock levels in the stores constantly and also identify the items that were moving fast. P&G could also lower its costs and pass on some of the savings to Wal-Mart due to better coordination. Employees at the stores had the ‘Magic Wand,’ a hand-held computer which was linked to in-store terminals through a radio frequency network. These helped them to keep track of the inventory in stores, deliveries and backup merchandise in stock at the distribution centers. The order management and store replenishment of goods were entirely executed with the help of computers through the Point-of-Sales (POS) system. Through this system, it was possible to monitor and track the sales and merchandise stock levels on the store shelves. Wal-Mart also made use of the sophisticated algorithm system which enabled it to forecast the exact quantities of each item to be delivered, based on the inventories in each store. Since the data was accurate, even bulk items could be broken and supplied to the stores. Wal-Mart also used a centralized inventory data system using which the personnel at the stores could find out the level of inventories and the location of each product at any given time. It also showed whether a product was being loaded in the distribution center or was in transit on a truck. Once the goods were unloaded at the store, the store was furnished with full stocks of inventories of a particular item and the inventory data system was immediately updated. Wal-Mart also made use of bar coding and radio frequency technology to manage its inventories. Using bar codes and fixed optical readers, the goods could be directed to the appropriate dock, from where they were loaded on to the trucks for shipment. Bar coding devices enabled efficient picking, receiving and proper inventory control of the appropriate goods. It also enabled easy order packing and physical counting of the inventories. In 1991, Wal-Mart had invested approximately $4 billion to build a retail link system. More than 10,000 Wal-Mart retail suppliers used the retail link system to monitor the sales of their goods at stores and replenish inventories. The details of daily transactions, which approximately amounted to more than 10 million per day, were processed through this integrated system and were furnished to every Wal-Mart store by 4 am., the next day. In October 2001, Wal-Mart tied-up with Atlas Commerce for upgrading the system through the Internet enabled technologies. Wal-Mart owned the largest and most sophisticated computer system in the private sector. The company used Massively Parallel Processor (MPP) computer system to track the movement of goods and stock levels. All information related to sales and inventories was passed on through an advanced satellite communication system. To provide back-up in case of a major breakdown or service interruption, the company had an extensive contingency plan. By making effective use of computers in all its company’s operations, Wal-Mart was successful in providing uninterrupted service to its customers, suppliers, stockholders and trading partners. THE BENEFITS REAPED Wal-Mart strongly believed and constantly emphasized on strengthening its relationships with its customers, suppliers and employees. The company was very vigilant and sensed the smallest of changes in store layouts and merchandising techniques to improve performance and value for customers. The company made efforts to capitalize on every cost saving opportunity. The savings on cost were always passed on to the consumers, thereby adding value at every stage and process. Wal-Mart also enjoyed the benefits of low transportation costs since it had its own transportation system which assisted Wal-Mart in delivering the goods to different stores within (or sometimes less than) 48 hours. Transportation costs for Wal-Mart were estimated at approximately 3% of the total costs as compared to 5% for their competitors. Having its own transportation system enabled Wal-Mart to replenish the shelves four times faster than its competitors. Wal-Mart priced its goods economically and the prices varied from day to day. The company enjoyed good bargaining power as it purchased huge quantities. This enabled it to price its products competitively and pass on the benefits to the consumers. The company offered higher discounts than any other retailer and they earned good revenues in the form of higher volumes. Low pricing ensured that the sales volumes were high and consistent. The benefits of an efficient supply chain management system included reduction in lead time, faster inventory turnover, accurate forecasting of inventory levels, increased warehouse space, reduction in safety stock and better working capital utilization. It also helped reduce the dependency on the distribution center management personnel resulting in minimization of training costs and errors. The stock-out of goods and the subsequent loss arising out of it was completely eliminated. Wal-Mart’s supply chain management practices resulted in increased efficiency in operations and better customer service. It eliminated old stocks and maintained quality of goods. Bar coding and radio frequency technologies enabled accurate distribution of goods. Cross-docking also helped Wal-Mart to reduce inventory storage costs. It also helped to cut down the labor and other handling costs involved in the loading and unloading of goods. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Ortmeyer, K. Gwendolyn, and Lattin M. James, “A Theoretical Rationale for Every Day Low Pricing by grocery retailers,” Stanford Graduate School of Business, 1991. 2. “Distribution and Retailing in China – Revolution and Competition”, www.alberta.org, November 12, 1996. 3. Rowat, Christine, “Cross docking: The move from supply to demand”, www.dmg.co.uk, August 1998. 4. Hulet, D. 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