Negotiation Styles in Intercultural Communication - Literature review Example

The use of conflict management styles across different cultures Use of conflict management across different cultures Abstract The purpose of this research paper is to investigate the conflict management styles across different cultures through exploring different styles in relation to different cultures. The paper will identify the similarities and differences in conflict management that exist across different cultures. Competition is favored in American culture while avoiding is favored in Asian culture. Compromising style is preferred when the conflicting parties are interested in maintaining their relationships or while the conflict is short-term. The accommodating approach is preferred when the parties are uncertain about their future and prefer maintaining harmony and stability while collaborating approach is used when the parties are capable of considering alternative perspectives and agreeing on a mutually beneficial solution. The paper has highlighted that individualistic cultures that have low power distance, high sense of individualism and achievement will encourage competing while collectivism cultures prefer to avoid conflicts in order to maintain relationships. Korea and Malaysian cultures will accommodate conflicts while Brazilian and Argentine cultures will compromise conflicts due to equal power distance. Multicultural societies like Britain can consider different views and collaborate in order to manage the conflict. Table of contents: page numbers 1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………4 2.0 Conflict management styles……………………………………………………..…. 5 3.0 Conflict management styles across different cultures………………………………8 4.0 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………....10 5.0 References………………………………………………………………………….12 1.0 Introduction Conflict is a contest or struggle between people with opposing views, ideas, values and goals and usually leads to adverse outcomes (Ting-Toomey, 2012). Conflict management refers to the process of limiting the negative aspects of conflicts through enhancing the positive aspects of conflict. Conflict management recognizes that conflicts are inevitable and cannot be resolved and thus should be managed to minimize the adverse effects of conflict escalation. The conflict management styles differ across cultures since the norms, belief systems and values influence the appropriateness of the style in conflict management. Avuruch (1998) outlines the five major conflict management styles that include competing, compromising, accommodating, avoiding and collaborating. Various research studies have identified cultural differences in conflict management styles since high context cultures are less assertive and confrontational while Western cultures that are low context are mainly confrontational (Yu & Chen, 2008, p 153). Some studies concluded that Chinese executives display avoiding and compromising behaviors while dealing with conflicts unlike British executives who prefer competing and collaborating styles in managing conflicts in their organizations. Asian cultures such as Japan, India and China prefer non-confrontational strategies in dealing with conflicts due to the collectivism, close social ties and high power distance in their cultures. In this case, the collectivism and high context culture will use styles such as accommodating, compromising and avoiding in order to maintain the existing relationships (Phillips & Gully, 2011). The Western cultures that are low context entails high degree of individualism, low power distance and low uncertainty and thus individuals prefer confrontational styles of conflict resolution such as competing and collaborating. The paper will detail how conflict management styles differ across cultures. 2.0 Conflict management styles Competing Competing is uncooperative and assertive conflict management style that is power-oriented since the conflicting parties pursue their own interest at the expense of the other party’s interests and concerns. The strategy leads to a win-lose outcome, but it is prevalent in cultures where the individuals have a high sense of individualism, sense of pride and achievement. According to Avuruch (1998), the US culture encourages competition due to high levels of freedom that encourages the conflicting individuals to express their resentment towards each other. Some of the competitive tactics include concealing one’s goal, verbal criticism and lying. The individuals in the conflict will try to deny responsibility, elevate their own arguments, and pretend to be hostile, threaten and reject the other party’s arguments or opinions in order to attain their personal goals (Ting-Toomey, 2012). Compromising The style entails finding a solution that will partially satisfy all the conflicting individuals. The individuals have concerns for their personal goals and relationships thus will be willing to sacrifice some of their goals, and persuade others to give up part of their goals in conflict resolution (Phillips & Gully, 2011). The style is common in South American cultures such as Brazil and Argentina where the conflicting individuals have equal levels of power and strong relationships thus are willing to make sacrifices on their goals in order to maintain the existing social ties (Drake, 1995, p 72)The style maintains the existing relationships, but may lead to lesser than ideal outcomes. The style is useful in complex situations, when the individuals have equality of power and when there are no certain time constraints (Phillips & Gully, 2011). Avoiding Avoiding style is uncooperative and unassertive since the individuals do not pursue their immediate goals and do not take measures in addressing the sources of the conflicts. The approach is characterized by behaviors that ignore the conflict such as not taking concern for self-interest or other party’s interests (Selmer, 2002). The style is applicable where the relationships are short-term and less important. Malaysian, Chinese, and Japan cultures prefer avoiding conflicts that threaten the established business relationships. Some of the cultural avoidance behaviors to conflicts that have been identified include being too polite, complaining about time issues, using non-committal statements, shifting from discussing the conflict topic and abstract conversations (Sadri & Flammia, 2011). Accommodating Accommodating style of conflict management indicates the willingness of an individual to meet the concerns and needs of others at the expense of their personal needs. Selmer (2002) outlines that this style places emphasis on the relationships rather than the goal and the conflicting parties strive to cooperate in order to maintain the existing relationships. The approach may not be productive, but will maintain the existing relationships especially when the conflict issue is short-term. The approach is used mainly in Asian cultures that aim at maintaining harmony and stability in order to promote cordial business relationships. In this case, Asian cultures have high uncertainty index and will use accommodating in order resist changes (Mayer, 2000). Collaborating This is both cooperative and assertive approach to conflict management where both parties to the conflict aim at attaining win-win situation from the conflict through satisfying their concerns. Mayer (2000) asserts that this win-win style preserves the existing relationships and ensures an optimal solution that caters for the goals of all conflicting parties. The style improves the existing relationships and reduces tension between the parties since both parties are committed to finding an amicable solution that is beneficial to all the parties (Phillips & Gully, 2011). This style is essential when time is not of concern and where individuals are cooperative in consensus building. The style of conflict resolution works best when the culture encourages different perspectives and viewpoints. Collaborating is the best style for a multicultural society like United Kingdom and Canada that encourages different perspectives of the conflict resolution (Yu & Chen, 2008, p 152). Conflict management styles and cultural chart Conflict management style Cultural values Nature of relationships Example of country Culture Competing High assertiveness Poor relationships and individualism American culture Compromising High cooperative High importance to social relationships Malaysian and Korean cultures Avoiding Less cooperation Collectivism values and tight relationships Chinese, Japan and Indian cultures Accommodating High cooperation, harmony and stability Strong relationships Chinese, Argentine and Brazilian cultures Collaborating Consensus building, cooperative and concern for others Aims at enhancing relationships British culture 3.0 Conflict management styles across different cultures The critical cultural variables that determine the selection and appropriateness of the conflict management style include the values, beliefs and norms that determine the importance of relationships, the relative power of the conflicting individuals and importance of the issues. Cultural researchers observe that individualistic cultures perceive relationships between individuals and groups as occurring between individuals and thus disagreements are inevitable part of the social life. In collectivism cultures such as Asian cultures, the disassociations and disagreements are not tolerated due to the cultural social structures and institutions that aim at avoiding the conflicts (Ting-Toomey, 2012). In this case, collectivism cultures such as Japanese cultures will aim at avoiding conflicts through maintaining the social relationships. In this case, Japanese culture comprises of the high hierarchy in social institutions, close social ties and conservatism of traditions that ensure high power distance and collectivism in the society. Individualistic cultures demonstrate use of assertive tactics in conflict management since the greater concern is attaining justice for the individual. According to research study conducted by Elsayed-Ekhouly et al. (1996), management executives from the United States preferred using accommodating, compromising and collaborating in comparison to their counterparts from the Middle East (Yu & Chen, 2008, p 153). Chiu et al. (1994) studied the cultural values, and differences that influence graduate students in Hong-Kong business graduates, and concluded that US graduate students preferred to manage conflicts through competing, confrontational and assertive manner while Hong Kong graduate students preferred more collaboration and compromise. Sabo (2006) studied the cultural differences in conflict handling between West African citizens and Americans and concluded that West Africans preferred more collaboration unlike their American counterparts who preferred competing in conflict management (Yu & Chen, 2008, p 155). Abdullah (2001) found that Malaysian managers disliked aggressive behaviors and preferred more relationship-based approaches to conflict handling thus choosing compromise and consensus than competing. Rebecca Wilson et al. (2004) focused on conflict resolution among Australian Muslims and Christians and found out that practicing Muslims used compromising style, but the non-practicing Muslims preferred collaborating style. The study also concluded that practicing and non-practicing Christians preferred solving conflicts through collaborating. Majumdar (2010) investigated conflict management styles by Indian in different sectors and concluded that most managers preferred using avoidance, accommodation and compromise and the least preferred styles where competing and collaborating (Yu & Chen, 2008, p 150). India has a high context culture that entails high power distance, close relationships and collectivism decision making thus most individuals will prefer to avoid or accommodate the conflict in order to make the existing strong relationships. Leung et al. (1992) explored conflict resolution strategies in Japan and Spain and concluded that Japanese participants preferred use of third parties and their preferred conflict management strategies were arbitration and mediation (Yu & Chen, 2008, p 149). Further, Leung et al. observed that Spanish participants also preferred to use negotiation strategies and were less likely to engage in threatening conversations or confrontational approaches in dealing with their conflicts. Lee and Rogan (1991) studied 80 Koreans and 90 US subjects on their conflict management behaviors and found that Koreans preferred integrated conflict resolution strategies and less confrontational methods in approaching conflicting situations due to high power distance and social classes in the society (Yu & Chen, 2008, p 156). The study found that Americans were likely to involve in confrontational and competing behaviors due to sense of individualism and need for justice that is associated with American culture (Ting-Toomey, 2012). 4.0 Conclusion Conflict management assumes that conflicts are inevitable, but can lead to adverse effects while not maintained. The major management styles include competing, accommodating, avoiding, compromising and collaborating. The cultural norms, belief styles and values influence the selection and appropriateness since cultural dimensions such as the power distance within the society, the degree of individualism or collectivism, the uncertainty avoidance index, masculinity or femininity or the low and long-term orientation of the culture determines the importance of social relationships, distribution of power and roles. The Asian cultures such as China, Japan, India and Malaysia are high context culture whereby decision-making is collective due to high emphasis on social relationships and individuals will try to avoid, compromise or accommodate conflicts in order to maintain the existing relationships. On the other hand, Western cultures appreciate values of individualism, justice and liberty and individuals use confrontational strategies in addressing conflicts such as competing or collaborating in order to resolve the conflicts. Conflict studies have demonstrated that culture determines the strength of social ties and importance of families in decision-making and thus cultures that have high collectivism in decision-making are determined to maintain existing relationships and avoid conflicts. On the other hand, the importance of personal goals and uncertainty avoidance of the individual will influence the selection of conflict resolution style and Western cultures that emphasizes on personal attainment and low risk avoidance prefer competing in conflict management. However, multicultural societies encourage different perspectives in conflict management due to the ability to gain commitment in solving the conflict, ability to cater for the concerns of the other party and ability to build consensus and thus prefer collaborating that eventually leads to a win-win outcome. References: Avuruch, K. (1998). Culture and conflict resolution. Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press. Drake, L.E. (1995). ‘Negotiation styles in intercultural communication’, The intercultural journal of conflict management, 6 (1): pp 72-90. Mayer, B.S. (2000). The dynamics of conflict resolution: a practitioner’s guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Phillips, J & Gully, S. (2011). Organizational behavior: tools for success. New York: Cengage Learning. Sadri, H.A & Flammia, M. (2011). Intercultural communication: a new approach to international relations and global challenges. New York: Continuum. Selmer, J. (2002). International management in China: cross-cultural issues. New York: Routledge. Ting-Toomey, S. (2012). Communicating across cultures. London: Guilford Press. Yu, T. & Chen, G. (2008). ‘Intercultural sensitivity and conflict management styles in cross- cultural organizational situations’, Intercultural communication studies, 17 (2), pp 149- 157. Read More