Techniques in Problem Solving and Decision Making - Assignment Example

Techniques in Problem Solving and Decision Making Managing Oneself and Interacting with People Theories in management and business administration have increased one’s awareness that managing oneself entails effective grasp of crucial elements of planning, organizing, directing and controlling. There are diverse factors pertinent to personal perspectives that need to be managed to assist in the accomplishment of goals. Goals, in general, are classified into personal and professional goals; so much so that efforts and endeavors are geared towards designing some kind of strategies that would assist one in the achievement of identified objectives. The crucial elements that require some amount of focus to hone skills, discipline and personal commitment are time management, problem solving and decision making and communication skills. To clearly proffer issues pertaining to the management of abovementioned concerns, it is appropriate to describe briefly one’s personal background and personality. Being part of a large family, one was accorded the privilege to interact not only with the nuclear family but with the extended family, as well. The experience provided one with the opportunity to be nourished with love and affection required to gain enough skills to interact with other people. One was initially shy and timid but the constant interaction with family members and friends in school developed communication skills and enhanced understanding of conflict resolution and negotiation. Likewise, when one belongs to a large family, there are tasks and responsibilities that were assigned at a fairly young age to develop a sense of independence and the discipline to achieve defined objectives through the accomplishment of simple tasks and duties. It is through this training that the concept of time management was initially introduced and slowly developed. Concurrently, the skills for problem-solving and decision making were guided and assisted through supervisory governance and with the assistance of more mature family members. Problem solving and decision making skills were likewise fully developed through the various academic levels given as part of complying with the educational requirements in courses and projects. I. Techniques in Time Management Time management or one’s ability to control time was part of one’s personal training to improve study habits and to accomplish simple tasks. I remember that my grandfather was very strict and disciplinarian due to his previous work experience as a law enforcer. His expectations require family members to adhere to specific time schedules and to finish tasks immediately. Disregard for his leadership style would warrant family member to disciplinary action through scolding and punishments in the form of additional tasks and demands. Because of the need to prevent me from being subjected to scolding and disciplinary action, I was able to develop a program for time management through preparing a list of activities that need to be prioritized. The list would be prepared depending on the urgency of the tasks that need to be resolved or addressed in specified dates and times. Time control enabled one as a student to plan and organize time through three simple but practical steps. The first step is the preparation of a monthly calendar which would contain relevant dates for academic requirements: schedule of examinations, submission of papers, and daily academic plans. The second step for time control is to design and prepare a weekly schedule through a chart which includes daily schedules and specific time to note all activities (study time, fun, rest, and relaxation). Finally, the third step is to write a daily or weekly “to do” list which will help prioritize the specified activities. These time control activities were consistent with the guidelines set according to the article entitled Power Learning (2009). II. Techniques in Problem Solving and Decision Making Aside from the personal experiences discussed briefly, techniques in problem solving and decision making were learned from academic discourse in management courses and in problem solving scenarios in other academic subjects. The very basic problem solving techniques were presented in a structured format in solving mathematical and quantitative problems in schools. Different studies present varying models of a typical decision-making process depending on their perspectives. Some models follow eight steps, others five. For purposes of making intuitive choices, I structurally follow six steps in decision making. The six steps of this natural, intuitive decision-making process, according to Ethics Resource Center (2009) are: “Step 1: Define the problem; Step 2: Identify available alternative solutions to the problem; Step 3: Evaluate the identified alternatives; Step 4: Make the decision; Step 5: Implement the Decision; and Step 6: Evaluate the decision”. Knowledge of the steps in decision making is not an assurance that the decision maker would choose the most appropriate alternative in all circumstances. It only serves as a guide for decision makers to consider all relevant factors before coming up with the most appropriate choice. The most important lesson one must be aware of is that individuals learn from the experiences that they encounter. Scenarios requiring solving problems should be taken as opportunities to enhance one’s skills and strengthen one’s abilities to face whatever challenges the future brings. III. Issues When Communicating With Others Communication is the “process of transmitting thoughts, feelings, facts, and other information” through verbal or non-verbal means (Delaune & Ladner, 2006, 402). When the process encounters some form of dissonance for whatever reasons, surely, some kind of dilemma occurs. The critical issues one considers when communicating with others are the following: (1) who am I communicating with? What is the personal background (demographical factors and cultural orientation); (2) what modes of communication are used? (verbal and non-verbal cues); (3) what is the current scenario? (venue, activity, objective); and (4) are there issues that need to be resolved (negotiation styles and conflict resolution strategies). All of these factors need to be considered to employ the appropriate communication strategies to avoid any possible conflict that might ensue. Conclusion Managing oneself requires self examination and assessment of skills in terms of time management, problem solving and decision making, and communication skills. These techniques have been observed and extended in undertaking personal and professional activities that need effective measurement of goal achievement. They have been helpful in attaining defined objectives at given time frames without resorting to delay, penalties or conflicts for noncompliance or miscommunication. . Reference List Delaune, S & Ladner, P 2006. Fundamentals of Nursing: Standards & Practices. Delmar Learning, Inc., Singapore. Ethics Resource Center 2009. PLUS: The Decision Making Process, [Online]. Available at: http://www.ethics.org/resources/decision-making-process.asp [Accessed 14 November 2010. “Power Learning.” English 2009: Chapter 18: Writing a Summary. McGraw Hill, pp. 388 – 395. NAME STUDENT NUMBER PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 2 NAME OF LECTURER PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 2: Supervisory Style and Motivating Others I. Manage or Lead Issues………………………………………….. 9 II. Preferred Style and Justification………………………………. 10 III. Strengths and Weaknesses…………………………………….. 10 PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 2: Supervisory Style and Motivating Others People can wander aimlessly for years without a sense of direction. Worse, they may not even be aware of it. Leaders seek to inject a vision that encompasses the values and expectation of both leaders and followers. It is a picture of what and where they want to be. It binds leaders and followers into a joint pursuit of intermediate goals. Performance beyond the commonplace is the key. Here, leadership is necessary. To be effective, managers must develop their ability to lead. Leadership complements management to make excellent performance possible. I. Manage or Lead Issues Managers are concerned with the creation of an environment for performance. They integrate tasks, structure, technology, resources and people into a productive configuration. Managers plan, organize, direct and control. In the end, however, they achieve goals through the efforts of other people. They have to influence the behavior of other people in order to get things done. This requires leadership, and managers have to be leaders as well. According to Martires & Fule (2000, 150), “leadership is the process of influencing people so that they will seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is concerned with eliciting behavioral responses that are more than routine”. In a leadership situation, behavioral changes are induced as a result of relationships among people. The relationships may involve either direct or indirect interactions. Tannenbaum & Massarik describe the relationship between leadership and influence by saying that leadership is “interpersonal influence, exercised in situations and directed, through the communication process, toward the attainment of specified goal or goals. Leadership always involves attempts on the part of a leader (influencer) to affect (influence) the behavior of a follower (influencee) or followers in a situation” (Tannenbaum & Massarik, 1957, 3). All leadership acts are goal-oriented. Leadership is effective to the extent that goals of both leaders and followers are achieved. Influence attempts may succeed in the sense that attitudinal changes are brought about. However, leadership succeeds only when followers take actions that are congruent with goal attainment. Using the abovementioned discourse, I consider myself both a manager and a leader in terms of defining responsibilities and functions required of a manager, that of planning, organizing, directing and controlling. But, at the same time, I am also a leader in terms of being given the task to achieve identified goals and delegate tasks to subordinates who are qualified to assist in the achievement of these goals. My responsibilities as a leader encompass motivating my followers toward the effective accomplishment of both our personal and professional endeavors. II. Preferred Style and Justification As averred by Martires & Fule, “leadership style is the pattern of behavior and actions that leaders make over a period of time as perceived by followers. It is how leaders behave, over time, when they are trying to influence the performance of others” (157). Leaders are seen as either practicing autocratic (exercise of power and authority), democratic (allows participative decision-making), or free-rein styles (minimal use of power). The application of each style has its benefits and limitations. In autocratic leadership, for instance, decision can be made quickly, but since it is a one-man decision, the leader may have to spend a lot of time to “push” members to implement it. In democratic leadership, decision making takes a longer time so as to permit consultation, but implementation could be quicker as participation engenders a higher commitment on the part of members to carry out the decision. In free-rein leadership, members have a high degree of independence; they may, however, work at cross-purpose and this can lead to chaos. One’s personal assessment acknowledges that the application of one style depends on the situation, the personalities of the followers, and the personality of the leader. Reflecting on various leadership styles, one prefers the democratic style since it encourages participation of members and thereby, decisions are arrived at using collaborative efforts and consensus among teammates. Of course when the situation calls for an autocratic style, when decision needs to be arrived at quickly, and when experience would tell that the appropriate solution is what has been perceived in one’s mind, then, the autocratic style needs to be applied. III. Strengths and Weaknesses In the context of supervisory/management skills, I perceive the following strengths: (1) skills of introspection (the ability to understand the position of a leader); (2) peer skills (the ability to establish and maintain a network of contacts with equals); (3) skills in decision making (the ability to find problems and solutions when alternatives, information, and objectives are ambiguous); and (4) conflict-resolution skills (the ability to mediate conflict and to handle disturbances under psychological stress). However, the identified weaknesses are as follows: (1) entrepreneurial skills (the ability to take sensible risks and implement innovations); (2) information processing skills (the ability to build networks, extract and validate information and disseminate information effectively); and (3) resource generation and allocation skill (the ability to find and develop resources as well as to decide among alternative uses of time and other scarce organizational resources). These list of essential skills were based on Henry Mintzberg’s leadership skills which can actually be taught, learned, acquired, developed and practiced (Mitzberg, 1973). In this regard, the identified weaknesses could still be developed with experience and practice in managing and leading people in organizations with diverse scenarios and situations requiring the use of these skills at some points in time. Otherwise, training programs and management development modules would enhance the development of these skills, as required. Conclusion The portfolio focuses on one’s supervisory style and identification of strengths and weaknesses needed to motivate subordinates towards the accomplishment of goals. In creating an environment for performance, managers have to lead as well. Leadership deals with human relationships. When a leader is truly effective, the institution is transformed. Work becomes exciting and fun. Learning and competence are highly valued. Leaders lead by example and the values they hold are seen in their actions. The values are lived by leaders in the ordinary day-to-day interactions with followers. There should definitely be a shared vision to spell success in one’s endeavor for the ultimate achievement of congruent goals. Reference List Martires, CR & Fule, GS 2000. Management of Human Behavior in Organizations. National Bookstore, Philippines. Mitzberg, H 1973. The Nature of Managerial Work. Harper and Row. New York. Tannenbaum, R & Massarik, F 1957. “Leadership: A Frame of Reference.” Management Science. NAME STUDENT NUMBER PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 3 NAME OF LECTURER PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 3: Managers/Leaders in the 21st Century I. Preference for Manager/Leaders’ Behavior in the 21st Century……….. 15 II. Power and Politics in Organizations……………………………………… 16 III. Group and Team work……………………………………………………. 16 PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 3: Managers/Leaders in the 21st Century I. Preference for Manager/Leaders’ Behavior in the 21st Century An article written by Robert Coffee and Gareth Jones published in the Harvard Business Review, entitled: “Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?” presented three (3) opportunities which are available to managers and leaders of the 21st century, to wit: (1) inspirational leaders share four (4) unexpected qualities which can be used to further one’s craft in serving others; (2) there are four (4) myths about leadership – the knowledge of which could correct misconceptions and provide a means to hone skills for appropriate application of the required leadership skills; and (3) theories such as the qualities of an inspirational leader cannot be mechanically applied; they must be developed and be used as part of the personality of the leader. Thereby, contemporary leadership theories focus on transformational leaders and the concept of servant leadership in their professional endeavors. Servant leadership, the model developed by Robert K. Greenleaf in 1970, promotes that “the servant leader serves the people he/she leads which implies that they are an end in themselves rather than a means to an organizational purpose or bottom line.” (McCrimmon, 2010, 1) Through servant leadership, the qualities of an inspirational leader are manifested: that of showing their weakness, becoming a sensor, practicing through empathy and daring to be different. The four myths (“everyone can be a leader, leader deliver business results, people who get to the top are leaders, and leaders are great coaches”) (Coffee and Jones, 2000, 67) would be debunked as the advocacies of servant leaders are being selfless and serving the employees. (McCrimmon, 2010, 1) Finally, manifesting the qualities of a servant leader could be difficult for most leaders and prove to be a window for development. Apart for servant leadership, the rise in transformational leadership theories emphasize that leaders need essential traits to lead contemporary organizations. Through awareness and understanding that leadership theories through time have given managers the direction and guidance to manage their people and the organization. However, there is no one perfect model or style of leadership. It is an evolving, adapting and adjusting process depending on factors which are unique to every organization. Thus, the opportunities and challenges could be addressed not by one particular leadership model or style, but by a process or method which would cater to the needs of the people being led and to the goals of the organization. II. Power and Politics in Organizations Power is an elusive process in social situations. Power is a force that cannot be seen, but its effects can be felt. It pervades all human interactions. It is one’s personal contention that managers and leaders should have an understanding and awareness on some perspectives employing power and politics in organizations. According to Max Weber (1957), power is “the possibility of imposing one’s will upon the behavior of other persons” (152). Thus, power exists only in a relationship between two or more people. Likewise, power does not have to be exercised in order to be present. Only the potential needs to be there. Power is latent force that may never be manifest, but it exists only when it is effective. The exercise of power depends upon the powerholder. If power truly exists, those being subject to it will behave according to what the powerholder wants them to. As Bertrand Russell puts it, power is “the ability to produce intended effects” (1938, 35). Otherwise, there is no power. Organizational politics, on the other hand, is defined as the “pursuit of individual agendas and self-interest in an organization without regard to their effect on the organization's efforts to achieve its goals” (Business Dictionary, 2010, par. 1).Both power and politics are central to the leadership process in every organization. Whether the influence attempts to use emulation, suggestion, persuasion, or coercion, or any combination thereof, such attempts are much more compelling when backed up by the use or threat of power. Without power, leadership collapses. People who aspire to leadership must be able and willing to use power. Leadership is related to politics for politics is concerned with ways and means to obtain, preserve, and increase power. Some people pursue power for its own sake, but only true leaders engage in politics so they can have sufficient power to attain desired ends. Therefore, when used for productive results, power and politics can be positive forces towards the achievement of organizational goals – thereby, these can be plus factors and beneficial for the organization, in the long run. III. Group and Team work There is a world of difference between doing the right things and doing things right. The difference is one between effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness is doing the right things. Efficiency is doing things right. Both are crucial. Leaders are people who do the right thing; managers are people who d things right. Where there is leadership, there is a team, a family, a unity. Even people who do not especially like each other feel a sense of community. Complex sets of interdependent tasks are carried out. Managers have become aware of the need to understand how the relationships between group members and between management and the group influence group behavior. As previously indicated, by belonging to a large family, my skills in interpersonal relationship have been developed over time. One acknowledges that common interests and goals bind the members of the group that moves towards its achievement through frequent interface among them. Management decides where people work and thus gives them opportunities to come in contact with specific types of co-workers. Managing a group needs the identification of critical components that could assure the effective interaction and interrelationships among members. The components that leaders must define are: goals, roles of specific members, the style of leadership that is compatible with the personalities of the members and the situation, open communication, clear policies and procedures, and a system of rewards and sanctions. Through experience in the academe working with groups to comply with projects and presentations, one has observed that clearly defined goals and with the governance of an appropriate leader, the activities of the members are defined with specific tasks assigned and with an accurate time frame given for accomplishment. Conclusion Setting goals as well as finding and clearing paths, even if the use of power and politics, towards goals constitute the two major functions of a leader. The leader sets goals with followers and provides task and psychological support to help members achieve goals. The leader provides a motivational environment where followers satisfy their needs and effective performance occurs. Reference List Business Dictionary 2010. Organizational politics, [Online]. Available at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organizational-politics.html [Accessed 14 November 2010] Coffee, R & Jones, G Sept. – Oct. 2000. “Why Should Anyone Be Led by You?” Harvard Business Review. McCrimmon, M 2010. What is Servant Leadership? [Online]. Available at: http://www.leadersdirect.com/servant.html [Accessed 14 November 2010]. Russell, B 1938. Power: A New Social Analysis. W.W. Norton & Company, New York. Weberm N 1957. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Glencoe, III, Pre Press. NAME STUDENT NUMBER PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 4 NAME OF LECTURER PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 4 Management of Change I. Is change inevitable?..................................................................... 21 II. Responses to Change…………………………………………… 21 III. Tools for change………………………………………………… 22 PORTFOLIO ASSIGNMENT 4 Management of Change Organizations need stability and continuity, as well as adaptation and innovation. Without some stability, any organization cannot function; yet, without adaptation it cannot survive. The choice is not between continuity and discontinuity, but a balance between them. They go hand in hand; and, organization can continuously adapt without being destabilized. I. Is change inevitable? Having established the need to be flexible in order to respond to changes in the environment, change is inevitable. The external environment continues to change in response to diverse factors that influence it: technological developments, social preferences, economic status, and political status, among others. When any of these factors change, the organization needs to adapt and adjust to the changes imposed by the external environment as a natural reaction to the change process. For example, if customers have increasing demand for the organization’s products or services, naturally, the organization must respond to the need by increasing their production. In doing so, other factors of production would need to adjust: purchase of additional raw materials, more people need to be involved in the production process; more funds are needed to support the increase in products to be manufactured; among others. To support and sustain the process, management must give incentives and rewards to personnel who consistently perform above par. Management might need to increase the salaries of personnel or cut costs to support the increase in production costs. Managers need to plan and control change to give direction and consistency to it. As change agents, their aim is to raise the level of performance of people and groups. Managers must themselves be open to continuous change if they are to be able to cause change in others. II. Responses to Change A change strategy is necessary for any type of change. Change managers need to develop an explicit strategy in order to increase the likelihood of successful change. The strategy will consist of a number of activities that need to be carried out to help managers initiate and implement changes effectively. As proffered by Martires & Fule (2000), the most essential components to prepare for a change process are: (1) determination for the real need for change; (2) search for an idea that suits the need; (3) analyze the change in terms of benefit and costs; (4) initiate change using small steps at a time; (5) assign an idea champion; and (6) determine and address post change problems. A strategy prevents haphazard initiation and implementation of change that only creates confusion and frustration. To facilitate change, management must create a climate for it through adequate consideration of human needs. This climate is characterized by open communication, consultation and participation, shared rewards, and employee security. The dynamics of groups can be used constructively to effect changes in individual behavior. To this end, groups may be used as a medium of change. III. Tools for change Lewin (1951) in his book on Frontiers in Group Dynamics identified three steps in the process of change, to wit: (1) unfreezing; (2) changing; and (3) refreezing. The unfreezing stage is the initial step involving awareness and recognition of the need to change certain aspects in the current situation. The changing stage involves the introduction and application of the new patterns of behavior (Martires & Fule 2000). This stage encompasses orientation, training and learning the new system or aspects which were initially identified as needing change. Finally, under the refreezing stage, those new patterns, systems, or behaviors must be stabilized and sustained for it to be effective and considered successful. At this stage, a full integration of the new aspects is finally ingrained into practice. Martires & Fule (2000) identified four bases of resistance to change: rational, emotional, social and political. In this case of any organization facing organizational change in terms of applying a new technology, the possible resistance could be a combination of emotional and social. There is the desire to retain the status quo because personnel are accustomed to conventional practices. The group forces and teams that have been established over time support the status quo for their own selfish personal objectives. In addition, older personnel are apprehensive of the new system for fear that they could not adjust and adapt to the new technology. To manage this possible resistance, management can employ the following strategies: (1) information and communication prior to the change to prepare the employees of the new technology; (2) consultation and participation by soliciting employees’ comments, suggestions, apprehensions, and the like; (3) emphasis on benefits of the new system; (4) orientation and training to show easy use of the new technology; and (5) assurance that the new technology would not disrupt employee’s security but rather contribute to a higher level of productivity and morale. Another tool which assists management in determining if change is indeed needed and could be supported by the resources of the organization, particularly, funds, is through an investment analysis. A financial investment would be carefully reviewed after evaluating the following factors: (1) price of the investment; (2) benefits and cost analysis; (3) adaptation of personnel to the new system; (4) available funds or capital of the organization; (5) financial or economic desirability and returns on the investment and (5) salvage value of the old system, if any. According to Viscione (1977, 235), “a firm uses funds and must obtain sources of these uses, and thus, financial management can be viewed as the management of a firm’s sources and uses of funds”. If the needed technological application can be supported by the firm’s financial resources, then, change could effectively be implemented. Conclusion Change is initiated, implemented, and maintained in organizations to increase the level of competitiveness and boost the productivity of its people. Changes can be made in strategy, structure, technology, products and services, or people. The relevant thing to remember is that effecting the necessary changes in the organization could temporarily disrupt existing equilibrium. Management can minimize any resistance to change by emphasizing that the benefits for all far outweigh any costs associated with it. Reference List Lewin, K 1957. “Frontiers in Group Dynamics.” In Field Theory in Social Science. Harper, New York Martires, CR & Fule, GS 2000. Management of Human Behavior in Organizations. National Bookstore, Philippines. Viscione, JA 1997. Financial Analysis: Principles and Procedures. Houghton Mifflin Company. Massachusetts, USA. Read More