Personnel Economics Issues - Essay Example

?Word Count: 1509 Personnel Economics: Rewards and Quality Teacher for the Improvement of Children’s Academic Outcomes 0 Introduction The body of scholarly literature has so far supported the position that the quality of the teacher is critical in educational outcomes. This is particularly pronounced in children education. The fundamental proposition is that the efficacy in teaching inevitably lead to student achievement or that the quality of teachers contributes to improved learning outcomes for children in school. In the widely regarded outcome-based education, for example, Spady (1994, p. 1) stressed the organization of the educational system towards what is essential for students after the learning experience. The quality of the teacher is critical in this particular educational philosophy since it requires an understanding of what matters most on the part of the learner. There are many investigations undertaken exploring this theme. The work of Kramer and Pier (1999) and Nussbaum (1995) are cases in point. Each of these investigated what constitute effective teaching, best teaching practices, appropriate instructor behavior and a host of other variables that underpin an emphasis on the link between teacher quality and educational quality. Rockoff's (2004, p. 18) work, for example, depicted this as he found that raising teacher quality is key in improving student outcomes. The American educational system also emphasizes this as reflected in its policies, norms, standards and guidelines. Stakeholders such as the American National Association for the Education of Young Children (NYAEC) fiercely advocate the teacher certification and strict teaching standards for purposes of enhanced academic performance (File and Gullo 2002, p. 119). However, the empirical evidences as provided by the literature can be confusing as several strands of research focus on different aspects of the issue. This report will attempt to remedy this by focusing on two important research themes: the impact of teacher quality on educational outcomes and the impact of teachers' compensation on their performance. 2.0 Quality of Teachers and Children's Educational Outcome The NYAEC has outlined five important guidelines for 4-5 year institutions that would indicate preparedness on the part of the early childhood professionals (see Horm-Wingerd, 2001, p. 63). File and Gullo's (2002) work articulated this guideline further when they found how the capacity of teachers to address collaborative relationship with the learners' families; the ability to apply relevant early education theories; and demonstrate a thorough understanding of family structure, the learners cognitive development and their needs, constitute the ideal teacher quality. Several studies would confirm this. For instance, Wilcox-Herzog's (2002, p. 104-105) investigation on the relationship between teachers' beliefs and their actions revealed that training and the preparation required for early childhood teaching certification is an indicator of high level of involvement and verbalizations in the classroom because it contributes to the maturity, knowledge and confidence of the teacher. There are many researchers who have conducted studies that successfully quantified the impact of teacher quality and education outcomes. The works of Goldhaber and Anthony (2007), Vandervoort et al. (2004), and, Smith et al. (2005) are cases in point. These studies found the students who were instructed by teachers who took and passed the teacher's board certification fared better on standardized tests than those students who learned from non-certified teachers. File and Gullo explored the link between teacher quality and children's academic gains in their comparison of the outcomes of several academic curricula by assessing the performance of the teacher at the beginning and at end of the programs. The researchers found that teachers with better training and experience are better equipped to deal with classroom management issues as well as in demonstrating the best teaching practices and attitudes. File and Gullo (p.125-126), for example, cited that new teachers - those who are likely to be less trained and inexperienced - tend to display teaching behaviors that are less aligned with best practices standards. There are even studies such as the one done by Early et al. (2007, p. 576-577) which found that the teacher's education indicate largely null or contradictory association with improved classroom quality or improved children academic performance. The study stressed that teacher education is most importantly just a mere component of the whole education system and that numerous other factors can contribute to the performance of teachers and the improvement or deterioration of the academic performance of young learners (p.577). There are many authors who propose a financial-reward system in the wider theme of involving the education system in raising the quality of teachers and of children's education. Milanowski (2004), for example, has documented an effective framework adopted by the District of Cincinnati. This variable will be explored further in the next section. The above studies are clear on what constitutes quality: that it is not merely about the teacher's academic credentials but it also include factors such as experience, values, behavior, acquired practices and motivations. Moreover, critical literature also cites the role of the educational system as an enabling factor. It underscores the position that teachers do not work in a vacuum and that the system contributes to the teacher quality, the kind that ultimately makes a meaningful difference in improving the quality of children's education. 2.0 Compensation and Teacher Performance Raising the compensation of teachers is an economic approach in the drive to raise the quality of children's education. This is not unlike a business strategy that aims to increase organizational performance and output through the reward management system or incentive scheme. The rationale behind this philosophy is that people, as economic actors, tend to respond favorably towards rewards and incentives (Eberts et al. 2000, p.7). To contextualize this approach for this report, one can turn to Hasnain, Manning and Pierskalla's (2012) conceptualization of performance-related pay mechanism in the public sector. It was explained that a worker's salary is determined by his or her work performance, which - for its part - is evaluated according to qualitative and quantitative inputs, outputs and outcomes (p.1). The efficacy of this type of employee reward system is anchored on sound economic theories such as the Contractual Theory, Achievement Motivation Theory and Maslow's Need Hierarchy. These theories highlight how the reward/incentive scheme is fundamentally behavioral in nature - one that ultimately aims to realize an objective in exchange for the fulfillment of human needs. It is not surprising, hence, that many authors have focused their investigations on this scheme amidst the declining quality of education. It offers a practical, fresh and efficient perspective. One of the most credible evidences that linked rewards to academic outcome is contained in Card and Krueger's (1992, p. 3) in-depth study on student returns to education. Using regression analysis across states in the US, the researchers found that for every 10 percent wage increase, a corresponding 0.1 percent increase occurs in student's return to schooling. This finding directly links reward to improved performance. Succeeding studies would also confirm this conclusion. Rockoff (2004, p. 12-14) found sufficient evidence that show how the increase in teaching quality can lead to improved student outcomes. It was further revealed that experience and expertise - variables that augment teaching quality - are important variables that affect student performance. In Israel, the scheme was also effective as demonstrated by the success of The Israeli Teacher-Incentive Experiment. Lavy (2004, p. 22-23) found that performance incentives led to significant changes in teaching methods, after-school teaching and increased responsiveness to students' needs. Lavy also contributed to the body of research that cites how the rewards tend to attract and retain the best teachers. Data from Leigh's (2012, p. 41) work also supported this when the researcher found that salary increase led to an uptick in students enrolling in education courses. 3.0 Recommendations and Conclusion There are academics who argue that the quality of the teachers is only a component of the whole education system, hence, not responsible for academic outcomes. But there is still the fact that they can be the linchpins in the ongoing drive to improve children's education and academic performance. The theoretical and empirical evidences in the extant body of literature show that teachers facilitate either the improvement or the deterioration of the quality of education. The importance is magnified in the case of teaching children. The dynamics as established by experts and regulatory bodies like the NYAEC, implies a far more delicate and complex process that requires teachers to be more confident, knowledgeable and effective. The decline in the children's academic performance can, hence, be addressed by improving this aspect of the issue: improving the quality of teachers. The reward-based approach to improving quality has been established as a sound and proven economic strategy that can meaningfully improve organizational outcomes. This strategy has been implemented in actual school setting with measurable success. This report recommends the adoption of a version of this model to improve the quality of teachers. An important aspect in this approach, which should be included as a core element, is the assessment mechanism required. It will not only address the system’s weaknesses or the emergent problems entailed in paying for performance such as congruity and distortion (Baker 2000, 728). Rather, it will also provide a better way to measure performance, identify areas of improvement and ensure accountability. References Baker, G 2000, 'Distortion and Risk in Optimal Incentive Contracts', Journal of Human Resources, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 728-751. Card, D and Krueger, A 1992), 'Does school quality matter? Returns to Education and the Characteristics of Public Schools in the United States', The Journal of Political Economy, vol. 100, no. 1, pp. 1-40. Early, DM, Maxwell, KL, Burchinal, M, Alva, S, Bender, RH, Bryant, D, Cai, K, Clifford, RM, Ebanks, C, Griffin, JA, Henry, GT, Howes, C, Iriondo-Perez, J, Jeon, H, Mashburn, AJ, Peisner-Feinberg, E, Pianta, RC, Vandergrift, N, & Zill, N 2007, 'Teachers' education, classroom quality, and young children's academic skills: Results from seven studies of preschool programs', Child Development, vol. 78, 558-580. Eberts, R, Hollenbeck, K, and Stone J 2000, 'Teacher Performance Incentives and Student Outcomes', Upjohn Institute Working Paper No. 00-65 File, N and Gullo, D 2002, 'A comparison of early childhood and elementary education students’ beliefs about primary classroom teaching practices', Early Childhood Research Quarterly, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 126-137. Goldhaber, D and Anthony, E 2007, 'Can Teacher Quality be Effectively Assessed? National Board Certification as a Signal of Effective Teaching', Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 134-150. Hasnain, Z, Manning, N, and Pierskalla, JH 2012, Performance-related Pay in the Public Sector : A Review of Theory and Evidence. Washington, DC: World Bank Horm-Wingerd, D 2001, New Teachers for a New Century: The Future of Early Childhood Professional Preparation. DIANE Publishing, Washington, D.C. Kramer, MW and Pier, PM 1999' 'Students' perceptions of effective and ineffective communication by college teachers', Southern Communication Journal, vol. 65, pp. 16-33. Lavy, V 2004, 'Performance Pay and Teachers' Effort, Productivity and Grading Ethics', American Economic Review, vol. 99, no. 5, pp. 1979-2011. Leigh, A 2012, 'Teacher pay and teacher attitude', Economics of Education Review, vol. 31, pp. 41-53 Milanowski, A 2004, 'The Relationship between teacher performance evaluation scores and student achievement: Evidence from Cincinnati', Peabody Journal of Education, vol. 79, no. 4, 33-53. Nussbaum, JF 1992, 'Effective Teacher Behaviors', Communication Education, vol. 41, pp. 167-180. Rockoff, J 2004, 'The Impact of Individual Teachers on Student Achievement: Evidence from Panel Data', The American Economic Review, vol. 94, no. 2, pp. 247-252. Smith, T, Gordon, B, Colby, S, and Wang, Jianjun 2005, An examination of the relationship between depth of student learning and National Board Certification status. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, Arlington, VA. Spady, WG 1994, Outcome-based education: Critical issues and answers. AASA, Arlington, VA Vandervoort, L, Amrein-Beardsley, A and Berliner, D 2004, 'National board certified teachers and their students' achievement', Education Policy Analysis Archives, vol. 12, no. 46. Wilcox-Herzog, A 2002, ‘Is There a Link Between Teachers' Beliefs and Behaviors?", Early Education’, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 81-106. . Read More