The impact of war on life course - Term Paper Example

?The Impact of War on Life By Table of Contents Literature Review 3 Introduction 3 Life Definitionand Perspective 3 Definition 3 Concepts 4 Soldiers and the Impact of War: A Life Course Perspective 5 The Impact of War on the Life Course of Civilians 10 Conclusion 14 Literature Review Introduction A review of the literature indicates that war has both a direct and indirect impact on the mental and physical health of soldiers and civilians in the long- and short-term (Levey & Sidel, 2009, p. 123). A majority of the studies in the literature focus more narrowly on the short-term effects of war on soldiers and not much attention is paid to the long term effects of war. The studies that do focus on the long-term effects of war usually focus on post-traumatic stress syndrome (Levey & Sidel, 2009, p.123). This literature review explores and analyses the literature documenting studies on the impact of war on the life course and includes the direct and indirect impacts on both soldiers and their close relatives. The first part of the literature review provides a working definition and perspective on life course. The second part of the literature review explores and analyses the literature on the impact of war on the life course of soldiers. The third part of the literature review explores and analyses the literature on the impact of war on the life course of soldiers’ loved ones. Life Course Definition and Perspective Definition Life course is distinguished from life span models of human development as the latter is growth specific and studies the social factors and development throughout the life span (Diewald & Mayer, 2009, p. 5). Life course is a discipline which is often referred to as life course theory, paradigm or perspective. Life course is used to study the correlations between social variables and human behaviour especially in in relation to aging and health among specific populations (Alwin, 2012, p. 206). Even so, both life course and life span studies are part of discipline that emphasizes human development and patterns in the life course that include social factors and “human capital economics” (Diewald & Mayer, 2009, p. 5). Kok (2007) defines life course as “a heuristic” study of the “interaction between individual lives and social change” (p. 204). A life course approach allows individual lives to be conceptualized in family, societal and historical contexts. Thus , the life course can be viewed as “the sequence of positions of a particular person in the course of time” (Kok, 2007, p. 204). Positions in this regard can include marriage, parents, employment, accommodations and so on. When a life course study is conducted, the frequency and timing with which positions change are analysed (Kok, 2007, p. 204). The changes observed are typically referred to as “events” or “transitions” (Kok, 2007, p. 204). Each human life will usually demonstrate transitions which may include finding employment, changing homes, parenting or marrying. These changes usually follow a sequence and are referred to as trajectories. The time between transitions are referred to as duration (Kok, 2007). This literature review therefore examines the effect of war on the normative transitions and specifically all elements of the normative life course. Concepts The life course perspective emerged over the course of the last four decades and has culminated in a method by which both the development of both the individual and family are identified from a historical and cultural perspective. Life course perspective was developed as a result of interdisciplinary work of sociologists, social historians, demographers, psychologists and anthropologists (Hutchison, 2005, p. 43). Therefore, the lifestyle perspective engages a number of human factors that contribute to human behavior and effects human development and functioning. Kuh, Ben-Shlomo, Lynch, Hallqvist and Power (2003) note that the life course perspective also takes account of biological factors that impact on the social life (p. 778). In this regard, the life course perspective is particularly useful for analysing and assessing the impact of war on family and soldiers as physical injury is bound to be one of the main direct consequences of war. As Kuh et. al. (2003) state, the life course perspective involves: ...the study of long term effects on later health or disease risk of physical or social exposures during gestation, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood and later life (p.778). In other words, the life course perspective facilitates an analysis of both psychological and physical manifestations of the effects of war. With the conceptualization of life course perspective as a model that allows for the identification of the direct and indirect effects of war on the physical and social/psychological well-being of soldiers and their families, the literature now turns to evidence-based studies detailing the impact of war. Soldiers and the Impact of War: A Life Course Perspective When health as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) includes “physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being”, the long-term effects of war on the soldier are widespread over the life course (Wright, 2009, p. 338). A study conducted by Ikin, Sim, Mckenzie, Horsley, Wilson, Harrex, Moore, Jeffs and Henderson (2009) demonstrates the negative impact of war on the life course. The purpose of the study conducted by Ikin, et. al., (2009) was to evaluate the quality of life and satisfaction with life among Korean War veterans from Australia and to compare those factors with a control group in their community and to identify the correlations with the experience of war (Ikin, et. al., 2009). The respondents were required to complete a questionnaire including the Life Satisfaction Scale, the WHO Quality of Life Bref and the Combat Exposure Scale. The study found that the Korean veterans participating in the study scored considerably lower on the Percentage Life Satisfaction and quality of life in four items on the WHO-Quality of Life Bref when compared to the control group. The scores were particularly related to the intensity of exposure to combat and “low rank” (Ikin, et. al., 2009, p. 359). The mean score for the Percentage Life Satisfaction was 15% “lower” for veterans with more intense exposure to combat than those who did not engage in combat and “12% lower in enlisted veterans compared with officers” (Ikin, et. al., 2009, p. 359). The results of the study therefore indicate that even fifty years after combat, soldiers experienced lower life satisfaction and quality of life than other men around the same age and that these outcomes are related to “deployment-related factors including combat severity” (Ikin, 2009, p. 359). It therefore follows that soldiers who are involved in combat are vulnerable to an altered existence due to lower life satisfaction and quality of life in the long-term. Coleman and Podolskij (2007) conducted a study of World War II veterans from the Soviet Union. The purpose of the study was to examine how Russian and Ukrainian veterans adjusted to social change after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The study focused on “identity development, and especially generativity,” during a time of great social change (Coleman & Podolskij, 2007, p. 52). The study involved 50 war veterans who had previously fought in World War II. The study was conducted by virtue of interviews conducted between the years 2000-2002. The interviews were conducted in two parts. The first part of the interview was used to obtain general information about the veteran’s health, living arrangements and conditions. The veterans were also asked to provide a narrative about their: ...lives as a whole, the connections between past and present, significant formative experiences, and major themes and values (Coleman & Podolskij, 2007, p. 54). In the second part of the interview, the respondents were asked to fill out a number of questionnaires designed to measure adjustment and well-being. The information obtained was used to measure self-esteem, life satisfaction, development, impact of events and wartime experiences. The results of the study indicated that 46% of the responded reported that they were in poor health, another 46% reported that they were in fair health and another 8% reported having good health. Half of the respondents had some degree of visual impairment and just as many reported having to use hearing aids. Nearly all of the respondents reported having some difficulties with some “chronic disease” and the most common ailment was cardiovascular disease (Coleman & Podolskij, 2007, p. 55). The Impact of Events Scale demonstrated that at least 12 of the 50 respondents suffered a high level of distress “warranting clinical examination” (Coleman & Podolskij, 2007, p. 55). 36 of the 50 respondents admitted to frequently and usually on a daily basis, recalling their war experiences. However, a majority of the respondents exhibited high self-esteem and admitted that they were proud to have fought for their country. Although the veterans scored low on the life satisfaction questionnaire, they reported that their life satisfaction was higher than that of their children (Coleman & Podolskij, 2007). Although a majority of the respondents were demonstratively cynical about the collapse of the Soviet Union, they had adjusted and were resolved to survive in a particularly undesirable capital and democratic world. Their main values and concerns were tied to their families and the future of their children. The veterans generally took the position that they can overcome struggles since they have the experience of going to war and returning home alive (Coleman & Podolskij, 2007). The study conducted by Coleman and Podolskij (2007) involved a relatively small sample size and did not differentiate between veterans who were involved in combat and veterans who were not involved in combat. Moreover, the fact that they demonstrated resilience in the wake of political and economic reforms following the collapse of the Soviet Union does not rule out the possibility that resilience was a cultural or class acquisition as opposed to war related experiences. Moreover, it has been reported in the literature that the impact of war or military service on the life course can be positive or negative depending on the time and place. For example the Vietnam War turned out a higher number of psychologically wounded veterans than the Second World War. The Second World War gave criminal youth an opportunity to change the trajectory of their lives to something more positive (MacLean & Elder, 2007). Levy and Sidel (2009) examined the literature and reported on a wide range of studies documenting the impact of war on the life course. In this regard, Levy and Sidel (2009) report that a number of studies conducted of the effect of the American Civil War on veterans using military and medical archives have been instructive. One study found that soldiers that experienced more exposure to the death of fellow soldier and the younger soldiers exposed to the trauma of war exhibited greater: ...signs of physician-diagnosed cardiac arrest, gastrointestinal, and nervous disease and more unique disease ailments across the lives of these veterans (Levy & Sidel, 2009, p. 124). Another study examined by Levy and Sidel (2009) involved 3580 soldiers suffering “shell shock” while deployed during the First World War. The study reported that shell shock hospitalizations grew when casualties increased during “offensive operations” (Levy & Sidel, 209, p. 124). 21% of the soldiers hospitalized for shell shock had a break down after 3 months’ deployment (Levy & Sidel, 2009). Levy and Sidel (2009) also reported on a study investigating the connection between stress related to war and mortality later on using a sample of 1448 non-military and military veterans of the Second World War. The veterans were first surveyed in 1992 and again in 2002. The study found the veterans who had been seriously injured during the war where at a higher risk of dying. Higher mortality rates were connected to post-traumatic stress syndrome, thoughts of suicide and depression. The study therefore concluded that: Exposure to stress during wartime and mental health symptoms during the long-term aftermath of war and violence significantly predict late-life mortality. Wounded survivors and those with a permanent disability of illness were found to be especially vulnerable (Levy & Sidel, 2009, p. 125). Levy and Sidel (2009) examined a number of studies conducted on soldiers and veterans up to the most recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and the results were similar to the previous studies reported above. Levy and Sidel also examined a study in which the long-term effects of war on children who were combatants on war was researched. Children are a particularly unique group of soldiers as they are still developing and do not have the maturity to cope with conflict and are not representative of the normative group of soldiers who are typically mature adults. In any event, Levy and Sidel (2009) report that children who were exposed to war and either killed in course of war or were sexually abused while deployed reported post-traumatic stress syndrome and the greater the symptoms were more vulnerable to resist reconciling conflicts and were more open to revenge (Levy & Sidel, 2009). The evidence in the literature indicates that the impact of war on the life course for soldiers is for the most part consistent. The greater the exposure to combat and death of a comrade during combat operations, the greater the risk of psychological impacts. Soldiers who return from the war physically wounded are also at a greater risk of suicide or depression. The social impact is devastating as these soldiers re-enter society significantly different from the way that they were when they were deployed to war. The post-war adjustment period is arguably difficult and as revealed in the literature some fifty years later, some soldiers were still struggling with their quality of life and satisfaction with life. We now turn attention to how war impacts the lives of loved ones and society in general. The Impact of War on the Life Course of Civilians Families play an important role in the “unfolding life course” and have both “internal and external dynamics that reflect and characterise the modern life span” (MacMillan & Copher, 2005, p. 858). Moreover, the life course perspective is especially useful for shedding light on the “role and implications of families for individuals and society” (MacMillan & Copher, 2005, p. 858). In this regard, when a country goes to war it is typically males who go to war. Although women do go to war and serve in the military they are far outnumbered by the men who serve in the military and during wartime. War therefore: Exposes the relationship between women and the state, changes the material role of women, and therefore necessarily redefines the relationship between the rhetoric of gender and the gender-specific assignment of tasks. It eventually makes possible a new consciousness of gender discourse as a social construct (Modell & Haggerty, 1991, p. 212). In other words, although the gender gap is narrowing, once a country goes to war it serves to widen the gender gap. Women are once again put in a position where perceptions are that women are not suited to war and that war is an entirely masculine function. This can set society backward as opposed to forward relative to the redefining of gender roles in a way that distinguished ideas and notions about femininity and masculinity. Teerawichitchainan and Korinek (2012) offer some insights into the overall social impact of war on the life course for veterans and their post-war relationships. The impact on post-war relationships is directly related to the individual impacts and post-war conditions. For example, the US society was deeply divided with respect to the Vietnam War. Many Americans were intensely opposed to the war and once veterans returned they returned to a society that was entirely “indifferent” to the soldiers that fought in what was perceived as an unnecessary war (Teerawichitchainan & Korinek, 2012, p. 1995). Vietnam veterans were even subjected to “alienation or ridicule” from members of the American public (Teerawichitchainan & Korinek, 2012, p. 1995). War can impact the life course of soldiers in ways that resonates at home upon return. For example, Vietnam soldiers were exposed to disease and drug abuse. In addition to the mental and physical risks associated with war, the social occlusion that followed, the exposure to drugs and disease functioned to ensure social occlusion. These problems reverberated at home making re-entry into mainstream society particularly problematic. These experiences contributed to create marital tensions, tensions at work and with respect to other inter-personal relationships (Teerawichitchainan & Korinek, 2012, p. 1995). Vaizey (2010) conducted a study of the impact of the Second World War on married couples from Germany. The study used a number of letters exchanged between German soldiers and their wives to determine the extent to which war impacted their marital relations. Vaizey (2010) acknowledges that it is typically agreed in the literature that the period of separation during war time leads to “estrangement” followed by a “difficult period of re-adjustment after reunion” (Vaizey, 2010, p. 389). However, according to Vaizey (2010) the letters examined revealed a different scenario. The letters demonstrated that “the chaotic and often life-threatening reality reinforced the desirability of the private sphere” (Vaizey, 2010, p. 389). Vaizey (2010) therefore concluded that the experience of war can “reaffirm and strengthen emotional bonds within the context of the threat of losing one’s loved ones” (Vaizey, 2010, p. 389). While this is probably true, it is difficult to predict an outcome suggesting post-war reconciliation and stronger emotional bonds on the basis of letters exchanged between husband and wife during a war. The letters may have been exaggerated out of loneliness on the part of the husband and wife, and more particularly the husband. In addition, the wife may have merely been sympathetic to the life-threatening experiences of her husband. Moreover, once the husband returns wounded either psychologically and/or physically, whatever love the wife had for her husband during the composition of letters while he was deployed overseas will certainly be tested upon the husband’s return. A study conducted by Klaric, Franciskovic, Ogrdalj, Petric, Britic and Zovko (2012) essentially confirmed that wives have difficulties adjusting to and bonding with returning soldier exhibiting mental disorders. The study consisted of 154 wives of soldiers who had returned from combat with “psychotrauma-induced” post-traumatic stress disorder. These women were placed in an experimental group and 77 wives of soldiers who were not suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder were placed in a control group. The results of the study indicated that the women in experimental group were more predisposed to symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression. Some of the women in the experimental group also showed signs of panic disorder associated with agoraphobia (Klaric, et. al., 2010). Kastrup (2006) argues that the impact of war on women who are left at home is significant in the long-term. With the loss of a key member of the family unit, even if temporarily deprives the wife of a significant source of social and emotional support and breaks the social network. This is particularly so should the wife become widowed and/or cannot find employment. Moreover, when men are away at war, women usually assume the role of absolute head of the household and this usually results in the wife obtaining a new found independence. Therefore upon the soldier’s return, the woman might be resistant to her husband’s desire to resume his role as head of the household upon his return home (Kastrup, 2006). According to a study Angrist and Johnson (2000) reflects that the effects of war on spouses remaining at home while the other spouse is away at war is different for wives at war. Angrist and Johnson (2000) studied divorce rates for husbands and wives deployed during the Gulf War. The study found that the divorce rate for deployed husbands was not impacted by deployment. However, the divorce rate for wives deployed was considerably increased. The results suggested that when women are deployed for war, it places significant “strain on marriages” (Angrist & Johnson, 2000, p. 41). The study however does not reveal whether or not the strain was directly or indirectly related to the fact that the wife was away at war or merely away. The results of this study may be explained by the assumption that men are unable to cope with their wives’ absence regardless of the circumstances. Monson, Taft, and Fredman (2009) conducted an investigation of research documenting the link between post-traumatic stress disorder and the “intimate relationship problems” of “returning veterans” and covered veterans form a protracted period (p. 707). The study revealed that it is well-documented in the literature that returning soldiers and their families have significant relationship problems when the veteran returns with post-traumatic stress disorder. It is also reported in the literature that returning veterans and their families have difficulties adjusting when the soldier returns with post-traumatic stress disorder (Monson, et. al., 2009). Klaric, Franciskovic, Stevanovic, Petrov, Jonovska and Moro (2010) conducted a study and found that when both spouses suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder the likelihood of post-war adjustment is more likely than with couples where only the returning soldier suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder. Lester, Peterson, Reeves, Knauss and Glover (2010) examined the impact of war on children and spouses who remained at home. The study involved 272 children and 163 spouses of deployed and “recently returned active duty parents” (Klaric, et. al., 2010, p. 310). The study showed that the combined effect of one parent’s absence and the distress of the parent at home “increased child depression and externalizing symptoms” (Klaric, et. al., 2010, p. 310). Conclusion A review of the literature reveals that war has significant impacts on the life course of soldiers, their spouses and their children and society in general. Although some wars produced greater post-war adjustment problems that changed the life course for veterans and their families, all wars usually impact the adjustment of returning soldiers and their reintegration into society and with the families. In the final analysis, the literature reveals that a large number of soldiers and their families struggle to find normalcy and it often leads to fractured personal and vocational lives for soldiers. Bibliography Alwin, D. F. (March 2012). “Integrating Varieties of Life Course Concepts.” Journal of Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, Vol. 67(2): 206-220. Angrist, J. D. and Johnson, J. H. (October 2000). “Effects of Work-Related Absences on Families: Evidence from the Gulf War.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review. Vol. 54(1): 41-58. Coleman, P. G. and Podolskij, A. 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