The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets And Freedom - Literature review Example

Digital culture Introduction Networks are made up of nodes and links connected to the nodes. At any instance, a network is fully connected creating a path that connects from one node to another. Any unconnected network can be described as a separate network. In any network, information and any form of data flow across links connected to multiple nodes. Networks are the basis for many processes, including what occurs through the Internet and all other social organisations. Many people view networks as evolving and growing structures. The study of networks has been in existence for several centuries, and several theories have been developed on the evolution of networks. To date, modern researchers in various fields have come with new definitions on networks, but they have relied on research work that has existed for the last two centuries. Albert-Lastlo Barabasi is one such modern researcher who has redefined the concept of networks based on research work done for the past 250 years. According to Barabasi, networks are made up of few nodes connected to multiple sites, terming them scale free networks. This new development has changed the way people knew about the complexity of many networks that exist today. Theories that have previously been in existence did not explain that various and complex systems contain strict designs ruled by fundamental laws (Barabási 2003, p.77). Scale Free Networks Before the discovery of scale free networks, scientists believed that all complex networks are entirely random. This could be easily demonstrated by connecting nodes to randomly placed links. This description of networks indicates that every node in the network will be connected to the same number of links (Caldarelli 2007, p. 44). This network connection follows a Poisson distribution, which is characterised by bell shaped graph. Random network connections have been the basis for networking for a long time; this happened until Barabasi and colleagues came up with the software that could prove whether random network connections exist. The use of the software in this study enabled the researchers to discover that a few but highly connected pages hold the World Wide Web together (Barabási 2003, p.65). This research further revealed that scale free networks follow the so-called power-law distribution rather than the bell-shaped distribution that is characteristic of random networks. Therefore, in the scale free networks, majority of nodes have limited number of connections and others have a high number of links. This is what makes the network to be free of “scale”. The key characteristic of the scale free network is that distribution of links when plotted on a double-logarithmic scale will yield to a straight line (Sergeĭ & Dorogovt︠s︡ev 2003, p.47). The study points out that many of the networks that occur naturally tend to be self organised into a form of hub-based network. These networks have a high level of connectivity, which is observed near the hub nodes. This phenomenon has been cited as the cause of the “small world” effect experienced by Internet users (Crumlish 2004, p.25). Barabasi-Albert definition of network takes into consideration to concepts which are preferential attachment (The richer get richer theory) and growth. The two concepts are widely evident in the real world. Growth simply implies that the number of nodes within a given network will increase over a given period (Barabási 2003, p.85). On the other hand, preferential attachment dictates that any node with a high number of connections is highly likely to attract more new links than the one with low connections. New node that gets into the network is likely to get attracted to highly linked nodes than those of low connection. In this case, nodes with high connections are regarded to be easy to reach because of the high links. Networks of this nature obey the 80/20 rule to achieve the desired network growth. A good example of the scale free network is the social network. In this network, people with high links within a certain social network may attract any new person who joins the social network. The same thing applies to popular web pages on the Internet such as Google; they are likely to catch the attention of many people than the unpopular web pages (Barabási 2003, p.79). The most intriguing part of the scale free network is that once a hub (the highest ranked node in the network) attracts a new node into the network, the new node reciprocates by attracting other new nodes. This cycle continues until a new hub is created. Formation of a hub in such a manner produces a more stable network that can withstand any form of shock in case a defective node is introduced into the network. The presence of several hubs within the network is also vital since it will prevent the network from collapsing if at all one of the hubs collapses (Caldarelli 2007, p.32). As already mentioned, scale free networks manifest themselves in almost all real life situations where networks are present. In all the areas where these forms of networks are present, there are potential implications that come in handy (Castells 2009, p.17). In the computing world, scale free networks are said to be vulnerable to properly structured attacks. In addition to this, dealing with known viruses from the Internet is not possible. In the medical world, administering vaccines would be easier if people with a high number of connections are given the vaccine to link it to others. This might not be applicable since locating such people is not easy. Similarly, it would be easy to develop drugs if the hub molecules that cause the development of certain diseases are identified (Caldarelli 2007, p.22). In the business world, companies that conduct their businesses through social networking with other companies, suppliers, customers, and government institutions create an extensive link (Benkler 2006, p.77). This will eventually result to the formation of an industry once a group of the companies within the network branch out. Companies with the highest links end up owning the industry. Many scientists are convinced that many networks are scale free in nature, but more research is still being conducted to validate this. Meanwhile, networks that have demonstrated the scale free characteristic include computer networks, spread of STDs in humans, social networks, and the World Wide Web (Held 1999, p.52). Networked publics Today, digital life and network technologies, have dominated every society all over the world. Since the use of the Internet came into place, communication, commerce, and media heavily rely on it to facilitate the various operations occurring in these fields. The mobile phone is another ambitious innovation that has increased the connectivity of people around the world. People can connect to each other from wherever they are through mobile phones and the numerous social networks via the Internet. Therefore, the Internet and mobile phones transform peoples life in all aspects of life; this makes the world a networked society (Varnelis 2008, p.4). Over the last few decades, the use of the Internet and mobile phones gained immense popularity across the world. This change in the modern society is evident from the way the economy, culture, communication and other aspects of human life have transformed and may not fall back (Giddens 1991, p.9). Other than communicating with people, users of mobile phones can access other services regardless of his/her location. Mobile phones allow people to pay their bills, do shopping, withdraw and deposit cash into their bank accounts, send money to other people, and socialising with others. These are just some of the services that a mobile phone user can access using a mobile phone in today’s networked world. There are many other mobile applications that are available. Mobile phone manufacturers are not just manufacturing phones for communication purposes, but are getting sensitive on the applications they will add to the phone to meet the user’s needs (Held 1999, p.66). Networks extend beyond connecting human beings around the globe to connecting people and machines. Modern day machines have moved from analogue to digital machines that have high connectivity (Crumlish 2004, p.92). These digital machines come with high mobility, connectivity and excellent interfaces, which make them essential components of a persons daily life. Networked publics have existed for ages, but the modern day world proves to be the most dominated with well organised networks. The key driving force to this phenomenon is the numerous technological advancements that have occurred for the last few decades. Many people also fight hard to gain the freedom of expressing themselves; this has further influenced the growth of networked publics (Varnelis 2008, p.13). Networked publics show some form of autonomy within themselves. Some forms of micro-publics that comprise of people with a common interest have emerged within the main networks (Castells 2009, p.22). This observation is similar to what is evident in the network theory where the way nodes relate to other networks is of considerable importance than the node itself. When a node within a given network gets smarter and smarter, it is likely to attract other new entities that get into the network (Barabási 2003, p.77). The same is observed in the networked culture where new technologies in the market attract a high number of people to buy them. People have inhabited multiple networks, which may be near and dear to them. This form of a network is highly private and personal; this makes it incapable of transforming into networked publics. However, other networks such as newsgroups, blog spots, forums, and interest communities have no restrictions to anyone. Networked publics concentrate more on issues that traditional media groups failed to address in the past or missed noting they ever existed (Varnelis 2008, p.17). Networked publics can be regarded as an excellent example of the scale free network as described by Barabasi colleagues in their research on network theories. Joining public networks have been easier due to the reduced barriers face some challenges. The Internet has a decentralised structure that makes it easy for interested people to monitor the flow of information within private networks (Castells 2009, p.48). Web 2.0 The introduction of Web 2.0 has improved the functioning of networked publics. Web 2.0 refers to web application features that enable people to share information, operate independently, and collaborate with others on the World Wide Web (Solomon & Schrum 2007, p.3). In a Web 2.0 site, users can interact with other users within a given social network setting. Users participate as creators of information and web related contents in a virtual organisation; this is unlike other websites where users can only view the information provided by website developers. A good example of a Web 2.0 is the numerous social networks that are available today. Web 2.0 is a transformation from HTML, which is a form of static web pages to a more organised web page than the ones that existed in the past. Network communities, which use the Internet as marketing avenues, have benefited from the Web 2.0 application since they can add extra materials on the already existing information. This is made possible by the increased numbers of user interface, software and storage capacity that the Web 2.0 offers to its users. Networked publics stand a better chance of growing further with the help of Web 2.0 since it allows all Internet users to contribute and collaborate with others at equal proportions (Solomon & Schrum 2007, p.11). Conclusion The human society has been transformed into networked publics due to the increased advancements in technology and the wide spread of Internet usage. People can now share information through various groups of networks developed to serve people with a common interest. The ability to network via the Internet has made the world appear like a global village, and people within a given network can share information without even knowing each other. Digital life and network technologies have dominated every society all in most parts of the world. Ever since the use of the Internet came into place, communication, commerce, and media heavily rely on it to facilitate the various operations occurring in these fields. Therefore, networked publics will remain relevant in today’s modern world provided the human race will remain in existence. References List Barabási, A.-L. (2003). Linked: how everything is connected to everything else and what it means for business, science, and everyday life, New York, Plume. pp. 77-290. Benkler, Y. (2006). The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets And Freedom, New Haven, Yale University Press. pp. 5-45. Caldarelli, G. (2007). Scale-Free Networks, London, Oxford University Press. pp. 15-55. Castells, M. (2009). The Rise of the Network Society, New Jersey, John Wiley and Sons. pp. 10-100. Crumlish, C. (2004). The Power Of Many: How the Living Web is Transforming Politics, Business, and Everyday Life, Califonia, Sybex.pp. 22-84. Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, London, Stanford University Press. pp. 7-15. Held, D. (1999). Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture, London, Stanford University Press. pp. 10-70. Solomon, G. & Schrum, L. (2007). Web 2.0: New Tools, New Schools, Washington, International Society for Technology in Education. pp. 2-67. Sergeĭ, N. & Dorogovt︠s︡ev, J. F. (2003). Evolution of Networks: From Biological Nets to the Internet and Www, London, Oxford University Press. pp. 40-50. Varnelis, K. (2008). Networked publics, Michigan, MIT Press. pp. 3-176. Read More