Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition - Assignment Example

Based on your readings and understandings of literature on L2 learning and teaching principles, select 3 or 4 pedagogically sound principles and explore how those principles can be applied in the context of CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning). Can you foresee any challenges teachers who wish to incorporate CALL applications with regard to your selected principles will face? Based on your readings and understandings of literature on L2 learning and teaching principles, select 3 or 4 pedagogically sound principles and explore how those principles can be applied in the context of CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning). Can you foresee any challenges teachers who wish to incorporate CALL applications with regard to your selected principles will face? The term CALL means language learning with, through, or around computer technologies (Egbert and Petrie, 2005). Following computerization and expansion of the Internet worldwide, the field of computer-assisted language learning has progressed and evolved rapidly for the last 30 years, gaining interest from language teachers, software developments and researchers (Levy and Stockwell, 2006). CALL has become an important tool in a foreign language classroom, not only in formal education contexts, but also, increasingly, in homes, computer cafes and libraries. Computer assisted learning takes place in many different economic, cultural, social and linguistic contexts, and can be used to support a variety of learning goals and standards. Apart from desktop computers, CALL involves such devices as mobile phones with text messaging and Web searching functions, personal digital assistants (PDAS), laptops and peripherals, including digital cameras, piano keyboards, prints and scanners, software, courseware, online courses, programs, language-learning Web sites, packages, and learning environments (Egbert and Petrie, 2005; Levy and Stockwell, 2006). All these technologies can be used to learn a foreign language through different modes, including oral, visual, graphical and textual. Furthermore, computer language learning involves a variety of different tasks, the content, structure, and organization of which may have a significant impact on language learning performance (Egbert and Petrie, 2005). Moreover, CALL can be used to support the application of several important language learning and teaching principles, such as a learner-centered approach, making use of the language learning potential (focus on form), focus on meaning, authenticity, impact and practicality (Chapelle, 2001). These principles have a significant influence on a language learning performance and, thus, should be applied when teaching and learning a second of foreign language. Learner-centered approach Learner-centered approach takes into account the learners’ background, role, and perspective. When designing a learner-centered curriculum, learners play a very important role in choosing their learning methods, materials and content of their course (Nunan, 1988). In case of computer assisted language learning, the main principle underlying this approach states that human-centered technology – in other words, all technological devices that are consistent with the way the human mind works, enhance the learning process more effectively than not learner-centered materials (Mayer, 2001). The importance of learning-centered approach to the CALL design practice has often been stressed by authors in the field who stated that the design driven by its perceived technological potential was often affected by its own limitations. Thus, in contrast to the technology-centered approach, which focuses on a cutting edge technology, in the learner-centered approach the technology needs to be adjusted to the learners’ needs and expectations (Ross, 2002). Following the learner-centered approach, online CALL materials should be designed through a rigorous and used-centered approach, in which active data collection procedures enable designers to identify and clarify the needs and expectations of users (Levy and Stockwell, 2006). In human-computer interaction (HCI) approach, there are many methods and techniques aimed to define mental models that enable a better understanding of using requirements. When working on CALL instructional materials, the designer needs to take into account individual learner characteristics as well as the curricular and instructional context in which the program will be used. Thus, it is useful to involve learners in the design process, as they can contribute with many ideas and strategies that will enhance their learning process (Levy and Stockwell, 2006). Unfortunately, in case of commercially produced CALL materials the designer is unaware of the individual learner’s age, education, cultural or ethnic background, computing experience, motivations, or learning skills. Thus, it is necessary to make generalized predictions about learners’ expectations. While it is quite easy at beginner levels, as learners become more advanced, their language learning process is more independent and individualized. However, there are some sophisticated, user-friendly computer packages, like those designed for the Apple Macintosh, which enable teachers to adjust commercial materials to their needs, or create their own ones, thus both providing their students with high-quality materials designed by professionals, and responding to their individual needs (Nunan, 1988). Focus on Form Chapelle (2001) states that the most important criterion in evaluation of CALL activities is their language learning potential; in other words, the extent to which the task promote beneficial focus on form (Chapelle, 2001; Levy and Stockwell, 2006). This pedagogical principle is advocated following immersion and naturalistic acquisition studies, which reveal that entirely experimental and meaning-focused teaching methods do not allow learners to develop some linguistic features to targetlike levels (Doughty and Williams, 1998). Thus, once learners master the use and meaning of a foreign language, their attentions should be drawn to linguistic apparatus which is necessary to understand the meaning. Learners get to know linguistic elements in context, as they appear incidentally during meaning-based activities (Long, 1997). Form-focused instruction can help learners to improve natural language acquisition processes and, thus, progress from communicatively effective language toward targetlike second language ability (Doughty and Williams, 1998). CALL tasks which may direct learners’ attention to linguistic forms involve such characteristics as modified output, modified interaction, modality (written or spoken communication), time pressure, support, control, surprise and stakes (Chapelle, 2001). Modified interaction occurs when a breakdown in comprehension results in an interruption of a communication exchange, thus drawing a learner’s attention to unknown linguistic structures. When an unknown item becomes comprehensible, it becomes potential material for acquisition. The modification of output involves learners’ identification and correction of their errors, which enables them to focus on linguistic form and accuracy. Furthermore, it is important to avoid time pressure when doing CALL activities as urgency in achieving communication prevents learners from paying attention to form. When speaking, learners always feel under time pressure to achieve fluency and, thus, neglect accuracy. However, as computer-assisted activities usually involve written communication, learners can pay attention to linguistic correctness. In many activities, learners are supported with cues or additional information to understand the meaning, which makes the task easier and, thus, enables them to focus on form (Chapelle, 2001). Introduction of an unexpected element in the task often directs learners’ attention to surprise and, thus, makes it more difficult to focus on form. However, it depends on the nature of the surprise. The teacher’s control of the task may also help to attract learners’ attention to form as teachers can provide learners with metalinguistic explanation . Finally, a learner who is aware of the importance of accuracy will pay more attention to form and language correctness (Chapelle, 2001). A study conducted by Doughty in 1991 revealed that students who used CALL materials with carefully selected and highlighted target forms performed better on reading comprehension and grammar exercises than a group whose attention was not directed to form. Furthermore, the learners tested were the most likely to learn effectively the vocabulary items that appeared frequently in the task, were presented in different contexts, and played an important role in the task. These studies show the importance of paying the attention to the form as well as to the meaning of language when designing CALL tasks (Chapelle, 2001). However, while paying attention to form of language, learners need to be engaged in meaningful tasks. These tasks require learners to use the target language in order to achieve certain objectives, like exchanging information, negotiating, or reporting past events (Chapelle, 2001). The underlying principle of meaning-focused methods states that the best way to learn a foreign language is using it as a medium of communication rather than as an object of study (Doughty and Williams, 1998). Focus on meaning was an important feature of many teaching methods and approaches, which are implemented in foreign language classrooms today; among others, Prabhu’s procedural syllabus, Krashen and Terrel’s Natural Approach, and some content-based ESL instruction and immersion education. Focus on Meaning When looking for meaning focus in CALL tasks, researchers observe learners’ interactions and their reports on the main focus of their attention during the activity. When learners develop coherence through a different topic than the language form, meaning focus is evident (Chapelle, 2001). The study comparing “meaningful” and “non-meaningful” input in CALL grammar activities reveals that learners who were engaged in meaningful tasks performed better on meaningful and structural post-activities than those whose activities did not involve processing meaning. Another study revealed that a group of learners performed better on a contextualized grammar task than on one that involved semantically unrelated items. Some CALL technologies, such as interactive multimedia software, may play a crucial role in drawing learners’ attention to meaning. As an example, a student who is interested in a cultural aspect of an expression in a dialogue he or she is watching, may click on the “help with culture” button and, thus, learn more about the cultural context of the dialogue (Chapelle, 2001). Students can also enrich their vocabulary learning process, learning new words in different contexts when surfing the Internet. Authencity When it comes to the principle of authenticity, learning tasks and situation should be as similar as possible to those a learner can encounter outside the classroom (Chapelle, 2001). The principle of authenticity should involve texts students read in the classroom, their own interpretation of learning materials, language learning tasks, and the actual social situation of the language classroom (Mishan, 2005). Authentic learning materials provide learners with rich, varied and motivating input, influence such affecting learning factors as empathy, motivation and emotional involvement, suit different learning styles, and, finally, enhance “whole brain processing”, which results in more durable and effective learning (Mishan, 2005). Thus, the principle of authenticity plays a very important role in many foreign language classrooms. Authenticity of CALL materials is assessed through the comparison of language used by learners in CALL tasks with the language used outside the classroom. However, the study on computer-assisted language discussion reveals that even though the task assessed reading comprehension that involved an authentic text, learners still regarded that activity as a classroom experiment rather than as preparatory for language use in the future (Chapelle, 2001). In the early 1990s, when the study was conducted, learners had little opportunity to interact with the computer using written language outside the classroom. Thus, this task was not authentic relative to their needs. Impact The principle of impact involves all positive benefits of a CALL task beyond its language learning potential (Chapelle, 2001). Learning activities may also help learners to develop their metacognitive strategies and heuristic skills, to gain interest in a target culture, and to gain pragmatic skills that will enable them to communicate outside the classroom. Since their introduction in foreign language classrooms, CALL activities have had a positive impact on students all over the world (Chapelle, 2001). Students are very enthusiastic about computer activities as they are interesting, motivating, and change classroom dynamics. A study conducted with adult ESL learners in Canada revealed that the use of hypermedia language learning software in the classroom had a positive impact on the language they used and on the teachers’ and the learners’ satisfaction with the quality of instructional experience. The program enabled the learners to work corroboratively and communicate with peers from the target language across a computer network, which made their learning experience more motivating and attractive (Chapelle, 2001). Furthermore, computer use in foreign language classroom enables learners to develop computer literacy, which is needed to all language users to participate successfully in modern life. Following overall global economic trends and the use of English as an international programming language, the knowledge of English has a crucial importance for developing computer and Web-based literacy experiences. An example of a learner who uses English to design a popular website and communicate with peers with different countries shows a great impact of CALL activities for computer literacy and, consequently, successful participation in knowledge-based society (Chapelle, 2001). Practicality Finally, the principle of practicality refers to the adequacy of technologies and activities in the particular constraints of a class or a foreign language program. In the context of CALL activities, hardware and software needs to be easy to use for students, adjusted to their computer skills and level of English. Early experience with computer assisted language learning reveals that learners need adequate access to hardware and software in order to complete the tasks successfully. Recent study in the field confirms this hypothesis; while it is common for learners to use computers regardless of infrastructure provided by language learning programs, guidance is an essential factor to use computers for foreign language learning. Thus, appropriate resources need to be available in order to provide all learners with guidance and support they need. For example, it is essential to provide learners who participate in a computer-assisted language discussion with a local area network, synchronous communication software, and the teacher’s guidance. Given these factors, learners can participate successfully in this activity. Thus, the principle of practicality is inseparably related to characteristics of social, cultural, and cultural practices which empower some members to make decisions concerning resources available for CALL (Chapelle, 2001). As resources play a crucial role in the success of CALL, it is necessary to implement formal mechanism to monitor adequacy. Furthermore, when discussing CALL appropriateness for language classrooms, it is important to have in mind the issue of resources. When provided with sufficient resources, language learners are much more likely to succeed within language learning activities (Chapelle, 2001). Conclusion CALL activities can be successfully used in the classroom to support several language learning and teaching principles and, thus, make the learning process easier and more effective for both teachers and learners. When searching for CALL materials and activities for their students, teachers should choose human-centered technology, which takes into account learners’ needs and expectations. Even though commercial CALL materials are based on generalized predictions about learners’ expectations, there are many user-friendly computer packages, which allow teachers adjust the materials to their learners’ language and computer skills, capabilities and needs. CALL activities should always promote beneficial focus on form and, thus, draw learners’ attention to linguistic form and accuracy when they are engaged in meaningful tasks. Such task characteristics as modified output, modified interaction, modality, time pressure, support, control, surprise and stakes enable students to focus on form and, thus, progress towards native-like language ability. When it comes to the principle of meaning, students engaged in meaningful CALL activities perform better both on both comprehension check and structural post-activities. Furthermore, using interactive multimedia software enables students to deepen their awareness of meaning through applications that provide additional culture and vocabulary help (Chapelle, 2001). Even though learners tend to regard CALL activities as classroom experiments rather than preparatory for language use in the future, it is important to provide students with as authentic language materials as possible. Apart from a great impact on language learning potential, CALL activities are very beneficial for learners as they enable them to develop computer literacy, which is essential to participate in today’s knowledge-based society. Furthermore, computer assisted language learning allows students to develop their heuristic skills, gain interest in a target language skills and, finally, gain pragmatic language skills that may enable them to communicate outside the classroom (Chapelle, 2001). Given that learners are provided with necessary resources and support, learners can participate in CALL activities successfully and, thus, make their language experience more rewarding and attractive (Levy and Stockwell, 2006). As computer assisted language learning plays an increasingly important role not only in the formal classroom, but also in informal learning environments, such as homes, internet cafes and libraries in many different countries, it is particularly important to follow pedagogically sound principles when designing CALL activities and implementing them in foreign language classrooms. References: Chapelle, C. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (eds.) (1998). Focus on form in second language acquisition. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Egbert, P. & Petrie, G. (2005). CALL research perspectives. New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Levy, M. & Stockwell, G. (2006). CALL dimensions: options and issues in computer-assisted language learning. New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Long, M. (1997). Focus on form in Task-Based Teaching. The McGraw-Hill Companies. Retrieved from http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/foreignlang/conf/option3.htm on 21 December 2009. Mayer, R. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Mishan, F. (2005). Designing authenticity into language learning materials. Bristol, Intellect Books Nunan, D. (1988). The learner-centered curriculum: a study in second language teaching. Cambridge, Cambridge University Science Ross, B. (2002) The psychology of learning and motivation. San Diego, Elsevier Science. Read More