MIS In Local Government Education Centers within East Africa - Dissertation Example

? MIS In Local Government Education Centers within East Africa, Case Of Arusha, Tanzania - An Integrated Actor-Network and al Approach : Course: Institution: Date: Abstract This report is a discussion of some of the introductory findings, from a field study under completion, regarding the development and the usage of a computer-based management information system (MIS). The report will also explore, whether an MIS artifact, after introduction and usage can contribute to the development of new managerial processes – which make it possible to administer service delivery at local levels in a better, different manner, with reference to the problem area of integration. The report will also, question, whether the MIS only enforces the administrative managerial role – towards domination and reinforcement of operational power relations. The faltering conclusion is that an MIS, throughout its development and changing attributes, is extolled with the interests and values of the delivery of education services, which is to happen within the operational power structure. Keywords: MIS, Giddens’ structuration theory, Actor-network theory, institutional theory, power relations, organizational practice. Introduction This paper goes over some of the basic considerations from an area study on the progression, as well as usage of an administration info process (MIS) in Department of education, as well as learning institutions in the Town of Arusha, Tanzania. The study question is: Does an artifact like an MIS, when proposed and also put into utilization, contribute to the production of a new practice that makes things achievable, to regulate in an assorted and more desirable method the trouble of integration? Or does the MIS system – just enhance the ability of the management control, to prevail over others as well as correctly just reinforce the being present power relations? In this paper I am reviewing these inquiries by focusing on the changes that have developed during the development method. From 1989 to 1993, I worked as an inner expert at the administrative level, at this association. I had studied theoretical literature concerning the way decision processes at the public industry unravel as well as presently I had the chance to experience and contemplate, just what took place in practice. I learned a great deal pertaining to practical organizational complications as well as exactly how they are regulated in this context. I experienced the well recognized, but for me, interested gap in between what transpires in practice and how we believe, act, and write as well as speak when making conclusions.1 Through this paper, I shall discuss, as well as evaluate such a gap by focusing on a project that has definitely created a computer-based supervision data system. There has actually been a massive gap in between the goals, deals and also activities taken by the management supervision that initiated the venture, as well as what was in fact happening in practice. This paper documents a complicated process with unanticipated troubles and also outcomes. There seems to be a reason in this process that accords with what Scott (1992) has certainly identified a logical view focusing on lucid targets and also the formal organizational framework as the ways to achieve them. This is not interesting in the context of the management level of the company. This level is placed between the grass-roots degree where the solutions are delivered as well as the political level where the formal and also legitimate right to choose is positioned. It belongs to the normative framework that the administrative authority needs to cope with issues of performance and also usefulness. From this viewpoint the focus on transparent targets and formalized ways is easy to understand.2 However, it appears that this kind of incorporated rationality is an ideal that has a tendency that constrains all the players. It is an important part of the organizational process and has an impact on what can legitimately be reviewed. This administrative logic, as well as the actors that practice it – is located in a broader context with its political as well as qualified measurements. In such a context there are additional entertainers equipped with logic of their very own. It is well documented in association idea that a control technique that depends greatly, on the rigid design as the means to regulate the association, experiences its very own issues. Vicious circles resulting in poor communication in between the finest level and grass-roots level are but one characteristic. In addition, depending intensely on standardization includes the issues of flexibility. ICT might be a mechanism in managing these vicious circles. A MIS can be inscribed into the presently, operational organizational method, by hardening these vicious circles.3 The organizational arena of tradition, which people are managing below, is riddled with institutionalized conflict, obscurity and skepticism. Administering education services to people is an institutional value, where individual dues are at stake. On the other hand, scarce resources have to be spent in accordance with uncertain criteria of efficiency and effectiveness, for the industry as a whole. Precisely how do you identify a balance in between presenting a qualitatively, optimally good service package to some customers and also at the same time, offer assistance to everybody who wants to access education services? In addition, there are institutional values about employee participation. However, the staff members are heterogeneous as well as, players who exemplify different values as well as interests. My view is that the progression and the usage of the MIS is a socio-technical process within which knowledgeable actors are interacting with each other using strength relationships and are continuously engaged, consciously or mindlessly, in competition relating to opposing institutional values and also interests prevailing in the field offering education services. To recognize the progression and also the utilization of the MIS, people have to take into consideration that an organizational tradition that faces these problems and contradictions is currently present and operational.4 One has to take into account a relational arena within which a heterogeneous group of players, each has his legitimate position. These positions provide them a specified freedom of action, yet at the very same time – they have to play an aggregate online game where they work together with others, and for that reason are constrained both by the online game itself and also the activity of others. They also need to defend themselves to maintain their autonomy. In the field that I am examining, as there is a complicated balance in between the freedom of activity for the stars at different levels, and the online games that bind them all together, making integration possible. The paper will definitely be organized as adopts: First I might point out a few words regarding the theoretical framework. Second of all, I may provide a short summary of the rigid structure of the neighborhood public education centers, as well as the actors within the education sector. Then I will definitely discuss some preliminary interpretations around the progression method by concentrating on essential functions. After that I offer some tentative verdicts concerning just how the MIS today does or does certainly not add to the complication of combination. I finish the paper by presenting exactly what I take into consideration and captivating research subject matters linked with my study.5 Theoretical framework A broad hypothetical perspective is required, towards understanding the processes taking place in this context, as the integrated technological facet with ordered action and its organizational context. Two theoretical models are applied to the IT-field, which from my viewpoint, appear greatly of great potential: the Giddens’ theoretical framework of structuration, as used, for instance, by Orlikowski and Robey (1991) and the actor network theoretical model (as, for instance used by Hanseth and Monteiro, 1995). Hanseth and Monteiro present the idea that the actor network hypothesis model is an viewpoint, which has the potential of explaining in a highly concrete and exactitude manner, the progress of ICT, as compared to Giddens’ theoretical model on structuration. Walsham (1997), on the other hand, talks about the option of using a combination of the two models. 6 He argues: “A combination of this work (Giddens’ structuration theory), and the methodology and concepts of actor-network theory would offer more than either one,” and I suppose that it is a good, plausible idea. Also, am of the opinion that, it is important to complement Giddens’ model on structuration – with viewpoints that cover the institutional context in a more explicit manner. An institution is a social creation, which at its operational level – symbolizes a given «placement of interests» that is institutionalized. In this line of argument, Crozier and Friedberg (1980, p. 53) presents this in a substantial manner, by arguing that: "Structures and rules have two contradictory aspects. In one sense, at any given moment they are constraints upon all the members of an organization, including the leaders who created them, while in another sense they are themselves the product of relations of force and of prior bargaining. They are provisional, always contingent institutionalization of the problem of coordination among relative free actors. This solution is given by the actors themselves in the light of the constraints, resources, and negotiating capacities of the moment." There is resemblance between Crozier and Friedberg and Giddens in the aspect that the two arguments are attempting to present the link between the structure and the social players/ actors in a vibrant context. However, they show differences, in the manner – through which Giddens has structured his grand model about the world, in general, as opposed to the other scholars – whose focus is centered on the formulation of middle range theoretical models, from the usage of empirical inquiries. In this regard, the conception of Crozier and Friedberg may show resemblance to the actor-network model, though is lacking in the consideration offered to the technological facet. This report offers the basics, in an attempt to unite the different perspectives. This is accomplished, through the usage of the actor-network model and the structuration model, as an inventive perspective, towards the identification of probable interpretations, while unfolding the major considerations to be checked during the system development practice. The argument will revolve around the process, as interplay between the development of the MIS framework, as well as an attempt to apply it to the course of practice, towards identifying and making conceptions linked to the issue of combine contradictory interests and values – towards central goals within the education sector.7 Giddens’ theoretical model of structuration and the Actor network theory (ANT) According to the ANT model, human actors and the non-humans structures are connected, forming actor-networks (Monteiro & Hanseth ibid., p. 331). The model, further, presumes that a given facet of the community is subdued by players, pushing for the realization of interests and goals, and that the interests of any actor can be presented as a social or technical formulation, for example, the case of an IS routine. One fundamental query it seeks to respond to, is the model through which a assorted, independent actors arrive at consensual agreement, that is, the way through which the social order creates a sense of constancy, thus, capable of exhibiting structural characteristics. According to the ANT model, constancy is final progression during the social course of straightening an originally diverse groups or lines of benefits to «one»; consensual, «truth» or constancy. The constancy or truth, in this case, is the product of riving at a given level of benefits alignment. Consequently, the spotlight of this kind of inquiry is based on the practices, through which «socio-technical» complexes get created or not, receive maintenance or get dismantled.8 The focus of the structuration model is to explain the interaction between the social structures and human action or practice (Orlikowski, 199; 1Giddens, 1981; Monteiro and Hanseth, 1996, p.328). The notion of structure, in this case, is to be conceived as a conceptual creation of a solid social structure, for example, the case of an educational institution. The two major essentials of the structuration model include the following: (i) the way, through which the different (two) planes of structures and action are employed, into the double nature of the social structure, and (ii) the recognition of forms, which are the vehicle linking the two levels. Further, it is necessary to comprehend the vibrant nature of the interrelation. The practices embedded on these institutions are formulated by the human actors, who, are consequently inhibited by the socially embedded practices. Additionally, these actions are upheld by the human actors, who impose changes on them, as well as reproduce them, for the continuity of the social construction. There are a number of observances, namely: resources, interpretive designs, and norms. Interpretive designs represent, the ways in which the actors comprehend the generality of course, and the way this comprehension is demonstrated. It represents the common accumulation of knowledge, which the human actors give reference to – when inferring situations. Resources include the means, through which authority is practiced by the diverse actors. At the institutional plane, it allocates a model of domination. Norms are the institutional rule constructions or conventions, assigned to administer appropriate, legitimate conduct and order.9 The formal organization - an introductory description At this stage, it is best to offer a simplified account of the formal institutional structure. In the real-time occurrence, it is highly complex. This is the case, as since the initiation of the MIS years back up to date, the system has been going through reorganizations and reconstructions at given levels of education services delivery. At the highest level of a municipality structure, there is, the political leadership – who are the elected members, mainly, comprising of an executive board, the municipal council, and the head of the municipal council. Through this report, this administrative level will not be given focus, nor, will any in-depth emphasis be placed on the highest administrative plane at the municipality in general. However, throughout the study, these different levels will be treated as a component of the context. Therefore, exclusive focus will be placed on the grass-roots and the administrative levels of the local Department of education. The top authority at the Department of Education is administrative head – together with his support staff, which are responsible for economic, planning and personal matters. The administrative level below this one is comprised of 17 administrative centers (wards). The managerial staffs at every ward hold the responsibility of the delivery of education and education services, at the respective geographical coverage. The administrative regions are, partly, self-governing and incorporated units, set with major, necessary organizational capital, towards managing the delivery of educational services at the respective zones.10 Within every zone, there are a varied types of education services, thus the structure is largely complicated. As a result, focus will be placed on the services that are directly related to the generation and the usage of an MIS model. The MIS model is basically linked to two areas of services delivery: community education centers and English/ international education centers, which are classified as institutionally-based services. The administrative level below the schools management level consists of the grassroots-leaders, who are answerable or in a position to question the running of education services at their respective educational centers or unit centers. There are a diverse range of professions engaged in the running and the production and delivery of education services, all of whom are not necessarily education staff members, for example interest groups, volunteer groups, and local-based institutions like NGOs among others.11 This broken-down account is mainly concerned with the formal institutionalized structure. Such a framework has been created through a developmental process, and should, thus, be considered a social construction. As a result, such a structure is characteristic with technical and formal traits like division of labor, official goals, formal qualifications for actors, for instance employees; authority structure, as well as other technical details. Additionally, the framework can be described, with reference to institutional characteristics like espoused values and organizational principles. This symbolizes the «objectively» identified framework, within which the different actors with the area of focus are rooted and from where the use and development of the MIS will take place. Under Giddens’ theoretical model, the context explained before, symbolizes the effort – employed towards the realization of meaningful conduct and behavior from the actors, by describing the structure of domination. Partly, it represents the accumulation of knowledge that the different actors and other groups give reference to, when interpreting different situations. The context in question consists of norms, which encompasses the institutionalized conventions or rules, which govern the oversight of appropriate or legitimate conduct. However, there is a need to move further, and question what is expected of the different actors, within the in the relational construction, which they must engage in. In this regard, the intent of the inquiry is to offer comprehension – of these interrelations. This will be explored, through uncovering the parts or roles played by the different actors, towards the pursuit of the perceived benefits or interests. At the same time, comprehending this will help towards the development of the MIS model, as a collective creation (Crozier and Friedberg, 1980).12 The development of the computer-based management Information system The development will, primarily, be informed by the information collected from interviews with major actors, available documentation offering information on the same and personal experience – based on the knowledge gained through research. The development will also, source information from the comprehension of MIS systems and their application into social models. The process may also, call for the input of internal and external consultants from the area of study. As expected, there is the demerit that personal experience may present or impose biases on to the study, which ill be corrected by the sets of information collected through the inquiries and other informed sources. However, this problem area will not be discussed through this paper. A test on the «objectivity» will draw, mainly, from the way the information to be captured – in the area of what is taking place at the field – and theory will be related and consulted.13 The initial phase During the 1980s administrative authorities on education, initiated a supervisory project, referring to the ideals of management based on objectives. Due to the need to track the development of different areas of pursuit and the level of meeting the common goals, there was need for the development of a computer-based management information system (MIS), which grew to become a core part of the project. The rationales for the creation of the MIS model were founded on the observation that, there was virtually, no account of valid data on the production and the delivery of education services. It was also, based on the fact that the administrative authorities, felt that it was hard to comprehend – concretely – the use and need for varied resources, at the various levels of the local education sector. As a result, the ideals put forward were to a considerable extent, based on the different leader’s prejudiced impression, regarding the situation – and the needs thereof, which were considerably vague. At a more general level, there were also the arguments that – based on the principal of management by objective (MBO) – impossibility of effective management was inevitable, due to the lack of valid information regarding the use and need for required resources, as a precondition, for the evaluation of goal realization.14 The rhetoric on the project was grounded on the fact that the project was rooted on the value of «planning rationality». The leader of the project – who falls in the category of peripheral consultants, disputed that at low management level, the players were highly ingrained on personal-based «service-rationality» with little or no focus on the means available. An example here is the education services administered to the consumers and not, in anyway – with focus on goal realization at the broader sense. As a result the ideal guided that the individualistic «care rationality» is to be balanced using the «planning rationality», towards the realization of the wide-focused goals (Forseth, 1989). The data-program was developed, to make it plausible – to classify client’s height of usefulness, the types of education services they receive, areas of possible improvement and the disparities between the services delivered and what they should receive, among other variables. In this respect, a classification system was developed – in a way that it can be integrated into a computer-run program. Further, a software program was developed, and a database developed, which could handle the data and the information derived, in a statistical manner, at an aggregated level. The aggregate data collection should then be used as an input – during the decision-making process, with regard to the allocation of resources – as well as in the future – during the evaluation of goal realization. Orlikowski (1991, p. 153) argues out that the form and the content of an IT relic, greatly reflect the objectives and the assumptions of the designers of the model. This is, considerably, obvious, because; such systems are representative of the organizational logic, often, enthusiastically embedded on the whole – by a charismatic guide. Based on that fact, he has been considerably skeptical. Further, being a former researcher under the field of geriatrics, he ventured into an empirical study, pushing to uncover the way different municipalities at a given county utilized their economic endowment on the varied areas of services. From an interview with this scholar, it was confirmed that the model developed through the study offered the frame of reference to MIS, whose core functions are grounded on the realization of the common interests and presenting better oversight models for the education sector or any other venture. 15 The MIS model can be viewed as an effort, towards the use of ICT in a tactical manner. The primary strategic issue in this area is the allowance of sources between the center-based solutions and the results expected from the sector. The pattern is to provide concern to the local consumers under the oversight and the coordination of higher levels in the sector, the concept being that such a technique will contribute – towards the delivery of better education services, in an excellent manner to each customer and at the best utilization of the resources at the local levels of the sector. However, it is difficult to record this technique methodically. The MIS was therefore to act as the model to offer the management, with the medium that could support this technique. Further, this became a dark-colored box; it is like trying to use the system before it is designed. One element of the ANT is that an actor’s attention can be translated into a specialized or public design, for example an IS schedule. Further, balance is seen as the end outcome of the public procedure of aiming at an initially diverse selection of interests to «one»; popularity, «truth» or balance. Fact or balance is the outcome of reaching a certain level of positioning for attention (Callon, 1991). In my situation this can be interpreted as the management leader’s attempt to inscribe his attention, towards handling the department in a certain way through the development of an IS-routine, which would enable such a purpose. But, according to the ANT this has to be done through the alignment of an originally different selection of pursuits. There are other players with interests, but it is the teachers among other players involved in the administration of education services, who take a major place in the system. It is mostly from this profession that the leaders are enrolled. So the development of the MIS has to be arranged, through a procedure of discussion, with the interests of the education sector players. The development of the data-based distinction program is appropriate in that regard.16 In the MBO venture, although it can be recognized as a top-down venture, there was also a rather great level of contribution from the grass-roots stage. In the assembly of the distinction program, several players got engaged from varied parts of the sector and different functional areas. In creating a simpler application of the model, the oversight management made the decision to transfer the already developed administrative system, and modify it to fit the required software application. The players at the grass-roots centers felt «manipulated» that their participation was a type of run by the higher levels (Forseth, 1989). How can the interpretation of the model of «negotiation» be drawn? Conventionally, there has been minimal formalization of performance routines within the sector. Specific understanding has been less prevalent than «tacit» understanding. In this line of thought, developing a distinction program includes a procedure by which the «tacit» information is considerably converted into clear knowledge.17 In Giddens’ language this entails the development of new interpretive designs. But, this has to be affected within the operational framework of administration and the resources presented by the players. There appears to be a deficiency here, between how the issue is mounted by the administration and how problem-solving procedures are disclosed at the lower levels of service delivery. This is clearly, not an issue linked to the varied concerns over interests, but an issue, where one actor (the administration) has an expressed goal, while the players at lower levels of service delivery have no idea of what is going on. That the organizational head discontinued the venture and brought in a distinction program from outside is a genuine way to deal with the situation in such a case. Accordingly, this is comprehensible from the perspective of the structuration model. The management had an advantage in the activity, both concerning sources as dictated by the framework of management and the organization of legitimization. This can further be considered as a technique used by the administrative head to enhance his management over «his organization» but his independence of action was more limited than expected. This got obvious when the MIS was under implementation.18 Using the system Technically the program was founded on remote personal computers. In this area, details will not be offered, regarding the specialized element of the program. After the program was established at the grass-roots point, the break between what the head of education services anticipated and what occurred in real action soon materialized. It grew rather apparent that the players at the grass-roots centers, both principals and workers did not display much attention in putting the program into action. Years later, different initiatives had to be taken by the administrative principals, to ensure that the system worked. Some development was registered, although the outcomes realized were still poor. The oversight management argues that: “the program endured through some of key actors who felt confidence in the program,” although it turned out to be a highly inadequate control instrument, as compared to the objectives expected from it at the beginning. These objectives were something like «push the button» and the necessary details would appear.19 A main idea within ANT is «inscription». It represents the procedure, where, for example an IT doll becomes a factor in an arranged system. Evidently, the MIS under question did not materialize into a component within such a network. Therefore, it may be argued that productivity between the control and the expert actors involved could not be achieved to any level. The messages to be discovered included that a precondition for employing it as a control device, was that the players at the bottom level of the service delivery model carried out their fraction of the job. Further, the administration at midway levels felt a sense of insecurity, regarding how to deal with the new program.20 In my perspective this is not sufficient. I suppose it is beneficial to evaluate the set of issues from an institutional viewpoint. New interpretive systems have to be invented, but that must be done within the current framework of importance, legitimization and domination. One powerful function of the ANT is to pay attention to the procedure of negotiation in attaining a positioning of interests by a developing a socio-technical system. The structuration model, on the other hand, details the association between the actors and the institutional environment, from which they operate during the negotiation practice. Further, it can be argued that the institutional principles and interests that the oversight leaders attempted to inscribe were highly one-sided towards their viewpoint, as far as effectiveness and performance were concerned. It also, considerably relied upon the official power given to them by the general institutional structure. Further, the model did not perform well, because; the players were not successful in developing a new exercise that could manage the current contradictory interests and values. This was partly because the model was greatly concerned with realizing quantitative details on the organization, as a creation unit and not substantially concerned with the task of developing a new practice. This practice would be a more beneficial model, capable of handling the association between the oversight leadership and the team players at the grass-roots level.21 Bibliography BERMANN, Paul., ‘The Study of Macro and Micro implementation’. Public Policy, 26(2), 1978, 34. BLOOMFIELD, B, and THEODORE, VURDUBAKIS. ‘Paper Traces: Inscribing Organizations and Information Technology.’ In (Editors), Information Technology and Organizations, Strategies, Networks, and Integration, ed. B. P. Bloomfield, R Coombs, D. Nights and D. Litter. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. BOLMAN, L. AND DEAL, TERRENCE. Reframing the path to school leadership: A guide for teachers and principals. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc., 2002), 76. CROZIER, M. and ERHARD, FRIEDBERG. Actors and Systems. The Politics of Collective Action. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980. FORSETH, ULLA, ‘Uten mal og mening? Malstyring av omsorgstjenesten i Trondheim’, Norsk institution sykehusforskning. Rapport, 06/1989, 32. GIDDENS, A., Agency, institution, and time-space analysis. In Advances in social theory and methodology. (Boston, London: Routledge & Kegan, 1981), 161-174. Orlikowski, Wanda. & Daniel, Robey, ‘Information Technology and the Structuring of Organizations,’ Information Systems Research, 2, 1991, pp. 143-169 Monteiro, Eric, and Ole, Hanseth. ‘Social Shaping of Information Infrastructure: On Being Specific about the Technology.’ Information Technology and Changes in Organizational Work, ed. In W.J. Orlikowski, G. Walsham, M.R. Jones and J.I. De Gross. (London: Chapman & Hall, 1996), 151. SCOTT, R., Organization - Rational, Natural and Open Systems. (New York: Prentice Hall Inc., 1992). WALSHAM, G., ‘Actor-Network Theory and IS Research: Current Status and Future Prospects.’ The Judge Institute of Management Studies, University of Cambridge, 1997. 24. Read More