Biological and Social Theories of Evolution - Term Paper Example

NATURAL AND HUMAN SCIENCES Theory maintains imperative significance both in natural and human sciences. It is theoretical framework that gives a go to the conducting of researches on various topics in order to prove or reject the authenticity about the characteristics of natural or social phenomena. “A theory is an explanation or model based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning, especially one that has been tested and confirmed as a general principle helping to explain and predict natural phenomena.” (Quoted in fsteiger.com) Theories are articulated and modified for the exploration of facts and realities on the foundation of deep observation, adequate evidence and critical examination of the available information. “The vehicle of all understanding”, Turner submits, “in science is theory. Theory is a way of answering the questions.” (2006, p. 2) Hence, theories establish principles and laws and add to the knowledge of scholars, intellectuals, philosophers and the masses as well regarding multiple disciplines and issues at large. Thus, theories are equally important in natural and social sciences for the establishment of various concepts and parameters in the light of which further developments are made in some specific field of knowledge. Though both natural and human sciences consist of theories, yet difference in both these sciences can also be witnessed in their theoretical frameworks. Pure or natural sciences concentrate upon examination of natural, organic, inorganic, physical and nonhuman laws, rules and aspects related to the earth and universe. On the other hand, social or human sciences study the existing social, cultural, religious and psychological phenomena on scientific grounds. Physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, engineering, aeronautical science and pharmacy etc come under the definition of natural sciences, while sociology, theology, economics, history, psychology, philosophy and others are called human sciences. Though natural and human sciences appear to be entirely different from one another, yet they maintain many similarities and commonalities between them; almost same is the case with the theoretical frameworks related to both these forms of science. The similarities between the nature and scope of pure and human sciences can be analyzed as under: Biological and Social Theories of Evolution: Evolution theory enjoys a very important status in pure and social sciences. Though experiments had been made several times in past in respect of discovering the origin of humans and other living creatures, yet it was Charles Darwin who first time presented a comprehensive evolution theory on the basis of his in-depth research on fossil remains and living things including humans, fauna and flora in order to make a decisive conclusion regarding human evolution. Darwin has articulated his concept of natural selection in his world famous work On the Origin of Species, where he submits to state that it is the rule of nature that only the fittest and most suitable living creatures survive and multiply; the rest of the creatures start weakening, and eventually perish away with the passage of time. Hence, Darwin is of the opinion that those creatures and living things that have the ability to adapt themselves according to the always changing natural and physical condition, survive and reproduce. On the other hand, the living things that either lack adaptability or sufficient strength necessary to defeat the external threats and impediments, are sure to expire, and thus lose the signs of their existence even. Darwin has submitted that the process of natural selection is the foundation of evolution of human generations. “As natural selection acts solely by the preservation of profitable modifications, each new form will tend in a fully stocked country to take the place of, and finally to exterminate its own less improved parent-form and other less favored forms, with which it comes into competition.” (1872, p.159) Darwin vehemently argues in favor of the notion natural selection, and declares it as the law of nature. He is of the view that it is the law of nature that the favorable traits and features in species contain more probability of inheritance and transformation into next generations. On the other hand, all other creatures, lacking these physical traits, are bound to vanish sooner or later. Since Darwin has laid stress upon the concept of common ancestry of all species, he declares changes in physical characteristics and mental abilities the adaptability skill of the surviving generations. “The river of DNA”, Dawkins observes, “has been flowing with the flow of time and is preserving the replication of powerful genes on the one hand and wiping out weak ones on the other.” (1995, p. 31) Darwin is regarded to be inspired by the theories presented by the social scientist Herbert Spencer and geologist Charles Lyell. “Spenser had” Turner argues, “developed two explicit lines of analogizing with the biological sciences, which involve the process of evolution from simple to complex form, and comparison between the individual and social organism.” (2006, p. 23) Spenser is viewed as the first theorist that depicted the change in the physical and social organisms with the passage of time. He observed the very fact that changes in the structure of organism brought alterations in the functions of organisms and vice versa. Darwin also emphasized upon almost the same theory that structure and functions of species adopt certain transformations slowly but gradually. “The details of evolution process show that existing animals and plants cannot have been separately created in their present form, but must have evolved from earlier forms by slow transformations.” (Darwin, 1859, p. 57: quoted in Huxley, 1872, p. X) Renowned philosopher and geologist Charles is of the view that the earth attempts to make several changes under the soil and over the surface. These outstanding changes bring changes in the environment, and even cause alterations in the climate and ambience of the entire region. He experiences measured but steady alterations, affecting the living organism in its wake. The scientists found many similarities between different species, particularly, among marine invertebrates and earth worms, which strengthened his belief that even divergent species shared common ancestry. Darwin’s Evolution Theory vehemently carries the very fact that only those species survive, which are the fittest and most complying to accepting the changes in their environment by adapting themselves accordingly. The same has been described by the social scientist Herbert Spencer. Renowned English physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton articulated his laws of motion in 18th century. According to his first Law of Motion “an object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.” (Quoted in teachertech.rice.edu) In simple words, every organism remains in constant state unless and until it is interrupted by some other external object. Hence, external forces, according to Newton’s law, pave the way towards bringing change in living objects; otherwise, the objects will remain in their previous condition in respect of their movement. The Marxist conflict theory also describes the same notion. Famous 19th century German philosopher and intellectual Karl Marx articulated his conflict theory, where he submits to state that different social classes remain in the state of peace and harmony unless the bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat by snatching away their share from the profit they earn out of the hard labor made and applied by the workers and laborers. In other words, workers toil from dawn to dusk in factories, mills and industries, but receive very little remuneration in return, and the industrialists obtain lion’s share on the basis of the investment they have made. Since the workers are deprived of the apposite share in profit, there appears conflict between the haves and haves-not subsequently. Hence, external force i.e. the exploitative measures of the bourgeoisie compel the proletariat to raise revolt against the exploitation, and the disturbance appears within the social organism i.e. the state. Additionally, Parsons’ social Structural Functional theoretical framework also shares similarity with the Newton’s Law of Motion. Renowned 20th century sociologist Talcott Parson has described in his theory that changes in the structure of an organism through external forces leads towards changes in the functions and activities of the organic whole. “Parsons believes”, according to Ritzer, “that there are four functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems, which include adaptability, goal attainment, integration and latency.” (2004, p. 211) If any of these four elements experiences disturbance in function due to external force, the structure also witnesses disturbance in the organism. The medical science also explains the same that any injury, wound and hitting certainly disturbs the functioning of one or more organisms. “The purpose of an organism is to survive. In order for a society to survive, the subsystems (the family and other institutions) must function in ways that promote the maintenance of society as a whole. This is similar to how a person’s organs must function in interrelated ways in order to maintain a healthy body.” (Parsons, 1949, p. 187: quoted in roxbury.net) Cognitive theories of growth and development also seek their root in both natural and human sciences. Natural sciences, on the concrete foundations of experiments and observation, are of the view that living organs observe mental and physical growth and development provided they are granted natural and favorable environment. The organism that are deprived of sufficient elements of nature including air, water, food and light, remain weak and may even expire soon. For instance, if the fish is taken out of water, it would not survive for long. Similarly, no humans, animals and reptiles can survive without inhaling adequate quantity of oxygen. The same is described by psychologist theorists, as Abraham Maslow is of the opinion that humans are unable to grow in their social environment and professional life without proper motivation and encouragement. Cognitive development is stated as the growth of mental processes as well as ability to think and perceive. It also discusses how a child learns and remembers by his innate mental capabilities and from society. Cognitive development simply means the ability to concentrate, remember things, process information, learn, speak, and understand. “The study of cognitive psychology is motivated by scientific curiosity, by the desire for practical applications, and by the need to provide a foundation for other fields of social science.” (Anderson, 1990, p. 3) Though, an overwhelming majority of psychologists declare cognitive behavior as natural phenomenon that is dependent of the environment and observation of the children in general; somehow, Piaget and the theorists of his school of thought view it as reliant of formal and informal learning process. “Within a given species”, according to Craig & Baucum, “individuals vary somewhat in physical and behavioral characteristics that are related to coping with and adapting to their environment.” (2001, p. 59) Natural scientists also argue in favor of environmental influence upon the living beings. “The environment” Platt et al state, “supplies the energy and materials which DNA mobilizes into a human organism. Environment also is involved in governing the rate at which this mobilization takes place.” (1964, p. 25) To conclude, it becomes crystal clear that theories are the building blocks of concepts, variables, statements and formats, designed and established by the intellectuals, philosophers and scholars in order to define a natural or social phenomenon. Since pure and social theories are the outcome of the hard work of big human brains, on the basis of their analytical observation and critical examination, they maintain similarities and commonalities in nature, scope and conceptualization. Different big brains work out in divergent fields while observing and analyzing the phenomena around them, which gives separate meaning to these observations and analyses. Somehow, since all scientists aim to explore the universal and cultural realities, their researches and theories also resemble to one another in nature. It is why natural and human sciences share many things with each other. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Anderson, J. R. (1990) Cognitive Psychology And Its Implications. Third Edition, W.H. Freeman & Company, New York p. 3 Craig, Grace J. & Baucum, Don (2002) Human Development 9th Edition Prentice Hall p. 59 Darwin, Charles Robert. (1872) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection A Mentor Book. New American Library, New York (Digitized 2006) Dawkins, Robert (1995) A River Out of Eden Basic Books, New York p. 57 Turner, Jonathan H. (2006) Handbook of Sociological Theory Springer Publishers pp 2-3 Parsons, Talcott (1949) Essays in Sociological Theory, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press pp. 187–189. Quoted in http://roxbury.net/images/pdfs/eftchap1.pdf Platt, Robert B., Billings, W.D., Gates, David M., Olmsted, Charles E., Shanks, Royal E. & Tester John R. (1964) The Importance of Environment to Life Bio Science, Volume 14 No. 7 p. 25 http://www.jstor.org/pss/1293232 First Law of Motion http://teachertech.rice.edu/Participants/louviere/Newton/law1.html. Is Evolution only a Theory? Retrieved from http://www.fsteiger.com/theory Read More