Reading and Researching in Social - Research Paper Example

I. Introduction In social research, processes and methodologies are as important as that of scientific research. Undoubtedly, one of the most important sections of a social research is a literature review. According to several social scientists, a literature review uses as its catalogue descriptions of primary data from scholarship, and does not provide new descriptions of its own scholarship. The primary accounts integrated in the literature may be oral, however, in the immense majority of cases accounts are written articles. The kinds of scholarship could be scientific, hypothetical, analytic or methodological in character. In addition, a literature review intends to illustrate, sum up, review, elaborate and/ or incorporate the substance of primary accounts (Crano, 2002). The review of related or relevant literature is almost at all times a standard chapter of a research proposal and a full-blown dissertation. The review outlines an essential chapter in a research thesis where its objective is to present the setting or backdrop to and rationale for the research embarked on. Furthermore, the objective of a literature review is to demonstrate to the reader that the researcher have actually read, and have a good understanding of, the key available scholarly literature concerning a specific subject matter or issue in his/her discipline. This work could be in layout, integrating online references or sources. It could be a project taken apart, or one of the preliminary portions of a thesis, report or a dissertation. Nevertheless, in research proposals and dissertations in particular, the review will be directed by particular research objectives of by the subject matter or argument that a researcher will be discussing and will present the structure for further work (Fairclough, 2003). On the other hand, aside from outlining a clear-cut review of related literature, social research also relies on three paradigmatic approaches, namely, positivism, interpretivism and critical approach, in defining the processes and disposition of a research proposal or dissertation. Primarily, the principle which states that all knowledge originates from positive data or information from observable facts or phenomenon is the territory of positivism; the origins of positivism rest specifically with empiricism, which operates merely with observable details, believing that further than this is the dimension of exactness of mathematics and logic (Bryman, 1992). On the other hand, the interpretivism paradigm of social research is a strategy founded on analysis and interpretation, and employed by interpretivists and frameworks that employ interpretive existentialist and knowledge-based fundamentals such as critical assumption and feminism. Interpretivism implies building up an assumption that is drawn from the language, meanings and premises of the social actor, or is anchored in routinely activities. Interpretivism is the paradigm employed to create social systematic descriptions of social existence through citing notions and meanings used by social actors and their everyday engagements (Lee, 2000). Lastly, critical approach in social research is a decisive paradigm if the researcher aims to understand the study’s findings and outcomes, its strong points, and its flaws. Moreover, it is used in social research to determine whether the research is satisfactorily reliable and significant for it to have any effect on conclusions and main concerns (Shacklock, 1998). II. Six Journals of Teenage Pregnancy In order to demonstrate the usefulness and value of these three paradigmatic approaches in social research, it will be essential to understand and analyze how various scholars/researchers actually make use of these three paradigms. A. Family Change during an Unwed Teenage Pregnancy This research paper uses data or information from a small-scale survey to investigate whether or not families reorient or restructure themselves at times and immediately after an unmarried teenager in the family becomes pregnant and how the outcomes may affect clinical procedures and practice (Cervera, 1994). A structured interview with a combination of open and close-ended questions was given out to recruited families from social or health service agencies. After receiving the booklet, the participants were contacted through phone so as to schedule a meeting in the families’ house. These interviews were conducted in the sixth and eight months of the pregnancy and immediately after birth. Afterwards, statistical measures were used to verify the significance of the relationships among the data collected. This research paper apparently used the positivist approach manifested in its dependence on observable facts which allude to results showing that a number of families with a pregnant adolescent reorient themselves in hope of integrating the newborn child into their lives. The statistical findings show that the transition in cohesion and the two-dimensional intimacy and interaction measures were markers for the shifting relationships within these families. B. Assessing the Patterns that Prevent Teenage Pregnancy This research paper agrees that pregnancy is a time of remarkable changeover. A number of theorists on development have even described pregnancy as a time of crisis in which the women endures not merely psychological turmoil but a reorientation of her self-identity. Hence, this study attempts to explain the impact and magnitude of these changes to an adolescent expectant mother (Trad, 1999). The study used purely a qualitative approach in investigating the subject matter at hand. Specifically, the researcher delved on secondary data from available literatures on the topic and then consolidated all the ideas to establish a comprehensive perspective on the developmental dilemmas of teenage mothers. Apparently, the researcher used the interpretivist approach in understanding and presenting information concerning teenage pregnancy. The research put emphasis on developmental, physical, psychological consequences of adolescent motherhood to both the teenager and to her significant others. Moreover, in order to illustrate the points of the findings, the researcher used a case history to interpret the everyday experiences and activities of a teenage mother. C. Psychosocial Variables Associated with Teenage Pregnancy This research paper was developed to explore the function of particular psychological and socio-cultural elements in putting white middle-class teenagers at high risk of becoming pregnant. These factors involve the personality aspects of self-respect and self-esteem, and strength focus of self-discipline and control, depressing life experiences throughout the recent year believed by the adolescent as traumatic, and selected demographic factors. Self-respect and focus of strength have been determined as relevant factors in interpreting a broad array of adolescent health behaviours involving controlling attitude and pregnancy, and they are significant providers to the sustenance of a secure self-identity under circumstances of anxieties during adolescence. Off-putting life experiences during the recent year which are judged by the adolescent as traumatic as well deserve examination since adolescence is a period of rapid adjustment with integrated biological and developmental challenges (Morgan, 1995). The main hypothesis of this research was that middle-class teenagers living in the suburban areas who become pregnant vary from their peers who are sexually active and who do not become pregnant on the light of particular psychological factors of self-respect, strength focus of control and effect of depressing life experiences (ibid, 277). The research used a cross-sectional design making use of inherently occurring groups, namely, teenagers who showed to the health clinic for the purpose of having a pregnancy tests and teenagers who showed to the clinic for regular gynaecological and reproductive health care but who were not at the present or had on no account been pregnant, even though sexually on the go. The adolescents were examined the moment they went to the clinic. This research used the critical approach because it attempted to strengthen the most important finding of the investigation, which is the variation between ever-pregnant and never-pregnant teenagers on the factor of influential other focus of control. In several manners, this research substantiates other scholarly and theoretical details on the subject matter. The researchers even concluded that the research has made a small input to the knowledge of the topic being studied. Two assumptions were obtained at the end of the research which then would benefit from being examined on a more substantial, more varied sample population; thereby, admitting both the strength and weakness of the research. D. Early Pregnancy among Adolescent Females with Serious Emotional Disturbances: Risk Factors and Outcomes The objective of this study was to determine risk factors associated with teenage pregnancy and consequences of early motherhood among adolescents with serious emotional disturbance (SED). It is relevant to determine these risk factors for teenage pregnancy due to the negative outcomes for both pregnant and parenting teenagers suffering from SED and their children. Risk factors for teenage pregnancy are the precursor variables that expect pregnancy. Determining risk factors may assist identify high-risk groups and, thus, lead early interventions (Yampolskaya, 2002). Another objective of this research was to examine the consequences for teenage mothers with SED. Respondents’ employment status, income, and proof of payment of public service, living engagements, and marital status were investigated. Since these variables have been greatly related with adult standing, they were examined just for 18-year-old and above teenage girls. Moreover, four determined risk factors for teenage pregnancy as well examined as consequences of early motherhood are “self-esteem, family cohesion, psychopathology and dropout status” (ibid, 108). This research apparently employed the positivistic approach in social research which is indicated in the findings which were subjected to multivariate analysis, a statistical tool, in order to determine if dropping out of school is directly related to teenage pregnancy. Moreover, family income was discovered to be indirectly related to teenage pregnancy, as once again revealed by a final multivariate model. E. Socio-Economic Outcomes of Teen Pregnancy and Parenthood: A Review of the Literature This research reviews available literature exploring the socio-economic implications of adolescent pregnancy and childbearing and also the birth purposes of adolescent girls who have become mothers. The literature points out those girls who become mothers, as weighed up to women who deferred childbearing beyond adolescence, are more probable to be socio-economically deprived. Nevertheless, research growingly indicates that, relying on the condition of the women in study socio-economic privilege is associated with but not automatically an outcome of adolescent childbearing. Moreover, the literature indicates that an array of factors, involving cultural standards and individual demands, can affect on the childbearing choices of adolescent girls (Bissell, 2000). The paper used a qualitative methodology in conducting the research. It specifically reviews findings from several Canadian and U.S. researches that have examined the socio-economic implications related with adolescent pregnancy and parenthood and the birth purposes of adolescents who become pregnant. The study used an interpretive approach which used major academic documents in the social sciences to search for more than a plain and basic interpretation of the dilemma of adolescent pregnancy in order to examine the more intricate socioeconomic circumstances related with the phenomena. While most of the literatures were investigative, a number of theoretical discussions and literature reviews were as well picked up for integration since they present significant contextual information. F. Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy: A Review of Programs and Practices This paper reviews literature concerning the interventions and activities presented for the key prevention of teenage pregnancy. Using findings from various research studies, the review describes several of the paramount interventions and activities available for the intention of professionals in their choice of interventions and activities. Prevention programs, their key elements and courses are included in the discussion. Paramount practices talked about integrate community and school-based health centres, projects providing contraceptive awareness together with extensive sex education founded on social learning theory (Franklin, 2000). There are a number of feasible means to identify paramount practices for the objectives of the review, paramount practices is identified not from opinions, assessments, or conclusions of professionals or those most aware and experienced with teenage pregnancy programs, but only from the implications of investigations that have been carried out on those programs. This research reviews available literatures on key prevention projects and practices for teenage pregnancy prevention with the aim of presenting a summary that can direct professionals in their choice of projects and interventions. Key prevention programs, their primary elements, and courses are as well included (ibid, 40). This research used the critical approach paradigm in assessing the strength and weaknesses of programs and interventions for adolescent pregnancy through using the perspective of social work. It suggests that social work professionals serving in health care, schools, and communities frequently function as the leading line of defense in putting off teenage pregnancy. This research has critically defined a number of the paramount practice for the intentions of professionals in their selection process of programs and interventions. References Bissell, M. (2000). Socio-Economic Outcomes of Teen Pregnancy and Parenthood: A Review of the Literature. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality , 191. Bryman, A. (1992). Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London: Routledge. Cervera, N. (1994). Family Change during an Unwed Teenage Pregnancy. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 119+. Crano, W. D. (2002). Principles and Methods of Social Research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cruickshank, J. (2002). Realism and Sociology: Anti-Foundationalism, Ontology and Social Research. London: Routledge. Denscombe, M. (2003). The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Research Projects. Maidenhead, England: Open University Press. Fairclough, N. (2003). Analyzing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. New York: Routledge. Faubion, J. D. (2005). Creative Social Research: Rethinking Theories and Methods. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute , 860+. Franklin, C. (2000). Preventing Adolescent Pregnancy: A Review of Programs and Practices. Social Work , 40. Lee, A. (2000). Culture & Text: Discourse and Methodology in Social Research and Cultural Studies. St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. Morgan, C. (1995). Psychosocial Variables Associated with Teenage Pregnancy. Adolescence , 277+. Shacklock, G. (1998). Being Reflexive in Critical Educational and Social Research. London: Falmer Press. Trad, P. V. (1999). Assessing the Patterns that Prevent Teenage Pregnancy. Adolescence , 221+. Turin, M. (2004). Visual Methods in Social Research. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute , 178+. Volkart, E. H. (1951). Social Behavior and Personality. New York: Social Science Research Council. Yampolskaya, S. (2002). Early Pregnancy among Adolescent Females with Serious Emotional Disturbances: Risk Factors and Outcomes. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders , 108+. Read More