The Organizational Evaluation of the Employees and Managers Performance - Literature review Example

ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS By + Introduction Modern organization function on a regulated structure which are designed to be tern oriented in nature and self-governing more than individualized strategy and controlled centrally. This style of arrangement has modified the importance that exists between employees and their cooperation, therefore, this has made mandatory behaviors which operate in organizations like organizational citizenship. This study covers the outcome that originate from (OCB) in terms of managerial evaluations and the employees performance, organizational effectiveness, the antecedents associated with (OCB), behaviors of a leader in (OCB), task characteristics and organization citizenship behaviors, the relationship and individual characteristics of (OCB) and (OCB) within educational institutions.Organizational citizenship behavior is defined as the behavior which goes beyond known basic requirements associated with the job, sometimes to an extend of discretionary with the benefits of an organization. Organ (1988) define (OCB) as any acts associated with discretionary and not completely in recognition by the official system of performance and management that has the responsibility of enhancing the logical functioning and performance, therefore, recently, Organ (1997) came up with another definition that focus on the conceptualizing (OCB) as form of performance which supports the social as well as psychological environment which encompasses all tasks. This definition is closely related to that of Borman and Motowidlo (1993, 1997). The intention of this definition is to try and distinguish(OCB) from the performance roles that are embedded. It also overcomes the complications experienced by much organization in an effort to reward such related behaviors. The concept of organization citizenship behavior is not new because it was first put forward by Organ with some hic colleagues way back (Bateman & Organ, 1983) and (Organ& Near, 1983). From this time there has been a number of concepts that have emerged from it, for instance extra-role behavior concept (Van Dyne, Cummings, & Parks, 1995), the organizational citizenship performance concept (Borman, 2004), the organizational spontaneity concept (George & Brief, 1992; George & Jones, 1997), the prosocial organizational behavior concept (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986; George, 1990, 1991), and the voice behavior concept (LePine & Van Dyne, 1998; Van Dyne, Ang, & Botero, 2003). The terms are associated, although they frequently emphasize different features. There was a different concept that was put forward by Williams and Anderson (1991) they tried to differentiate behaviors that are specifically directed towards a person, called OCBI as well as those behaviors that are directed straight to theorganization known as OCBO. For Instance, OCBI might comprise altruism and other helping behaviors like courtesy cheerleading and peacekeeping while OCBO includes conscientiousness, sportsmanship and civic virtue. The differences noted among the OCBI and OCBO provide a good platform to accommodate other facets embedded in the citizenship behavior that are temporary explained by Organ(1988, 1990). For instance, OCBT could accommodate interpersonal facilitation, harmony and helping while OCBO could comprise of dedication, personal initiative,voice behavior, supportive, endosermet and organization loyalty or in other words to promote good image of the company. Many studies that hav been carried out shows the utility pertaining this distinction, it goes ahead to reveal that OCBI together with OCBO corresponds correctly to the differences set of antecedents and penalties. For instances, emotional exhaustion is relatively associated with OCBI but at the same time negatively linked to OCBO. Additionally, leader-member exchange, that is responsible for representation of healthy relationships amongstleaders and employees tend to be associated with the OCBI more than OCB. Podsakoff,Bachrach,MacKenzie,andPaine(2000), differenciated a total of 30 distinct forms (OCB) scholars have established several taxonomies which are used to categorise these citizenship hehaviors (Williams & Anderson, 1991). Famous taxonomies was proposed by Organ (1988) who distiquished five reknown facets, namely ourtesy, subsequently, sportsmanship, conscientiousness and finally civic virture. In the Organ (1990) contains two more factors which are cheerleading and peacekeeping. According to the findings, three of the above factors readly can be differentiated by the managers. The factor of sportsmanship is used mostly to describe those employees who are able to to withstand difficult moments at workstation and are able still to improve the well being of the organosation, they can abstain and mov on from unnecessary complains or sometimes critism Civic virtue refers to more lively egengement, interest and good participation their priv life as wel as organization, fo instance, events, meetings, functions and conscienttiosness, in other words it is called compliance, this reflect genuine acceptance at work and adherence to the rules or egulations. Other factors like cheerleading, altruism, peacekeeping and courtesy are difficult to be distiquished.According to Podsakoff, MacKenzieand Ahearne(1997), all of the above factors may have the probability to correspond but at a broader dimension. Several measures in different scals have been taken in order to evaluate organizational citizenship behavior, to show this, Podsakoff,Moorman, MacKenzie, and Fetter (1990) came up wih a single measure of (OCB). This measures were within the confirmatory factor analysis which comprises of the five facets of (OCB). Several research in this area is aimed at antecedents or dependent on (OCB). Although some research has shown that individual traits, for example, agreeableness are associated to their behaviors while another study has shown that, characteristics of the task, for example, autonomy is related to (OCB). Thirdly, the leader’s behaviors or manager’s behavior might be key on the prevelance of some acts, the attitude of the employees on their job,perceived justice,fairness as well as organisationmight be paramount in affecting (OCB). Meta-analysis gives good and comprehensive summary of the outcome as many authors have used it to discover the antecedents of (OCB). Although a lot of studies has been focusing on the(OCB). The outcome of such acts have been examined well ( e.g., Allen & Rush, 1998; Dunlop & Lee, 2004; Ehrhart&Naumann, 2004; Koys, 2001; Podsakoff&MacKenzie, 1997; Walz&Niehoff, 2000). It is true that reaserchers have been investigating daily whether (OCB) culminates in positive personal outcome like evaluation, rewards performance and organization weighed in terms of productivity and profitability. For example, it is common that citizen behaviors is associated positively with the personal wellbeings and the functioning of the organization. Nonetheless, some exceptions that are crucial have been unmasked in specific settings, for instance, (OCB) can be linked to role overload and tention emanating from work and family(Bolino&Turnley, 2005).Additionally, Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1994), in insurance aganceies study illustrates the helping behaviors that come from agents was inversely linked direct to their performance in that particular agency Recommendation/ point to future research The teachers initiative actions, colleagues support, students support which comprises of teaching tools and skills has been neglected to a higher margin in terms of(OCB), therefore, proper efforts must be invested as a focus for future research to have good impressive outcome. Research is a good platform since it highlights individual participation in (OCB) which anable at the end good results in positive performance evaluation (Allen & Rush, 1998; Werner, 1994). But at the end this individual are used on getting rewards or handouts as a consequence of these type of associations. Meta-analysis classifys several decedents of (OCB) but four main ones proves more effective and are recommended for organisations, for example, the characteristics of the organization, individual character, the task characters and the leaders behaviors. Many organizational machanisms could associate themselves with the (OCB) for future research in order to improve on the large scalee managerial evaluation (Allen & Rush, 1998; Lefkowitz, 2000; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, &Hui, 1993; Shore, Barksdale, & Shore, 1995). At first (OCB) operate in the mandatory manner or sometimes as recommended but very discretionary as well as optional, this means that persons must be motivated. This kind of encouragement and motivating steps taken towards this individual could in return transulate into positive perdormance appraisal at workplace (Shore, Barksdale, & Shore, 1995). The second will be that (OCB) regularly endeaviours to facilitate all work done by the managers as they might reciprocate the betterways to apprise individuals who take their time to perform well and positively, and third, when the workers participate actively in the (OCB), they are likely to be favoured more by their colleaques or other individuals, this may include the managers resulting to more positive evaluation than ever (Lefkowitz, 2000). The (OCB) and the management evaluation are both pronounced since they have related acts and assessements from the same individual like the supervisor of the organization Podsakoff, & Fetter, 1993). Therefore, a number issues relared to biases could make the relationship worse in case the same individual assesses both prevailing incidenes of (OCB) and performance of persons. This includes consistent or lenient (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, &Podsakoff, 2003). Conclusion The organizational evalution of the employees as well as manager’s performance creat a good impact of (OCB) on the general performance of the organization, studies recommend the top managers should always take extra-role behaviors on the operation of the organizations for the total effectiveness to be realized. Meta-analysis classifys several decedents of (OCB) but four main ones proves more effective and are recommended, for example, the characteristics of the organization, individual character, the task characters and the leaders behaviors. little attention has been given to the teachers (OCB), this involves the teachers initiative actions, colleagues support, students support which comprises of teaching tools and skills. Proper efforts must be invested to have gove impressive outcome. Therefore , (OCB) is with no doubt liked to the procedures of workplace effectiveness in and organization (Dunlop & Lee, 2004; Koys, 2001; Podsakoff&MacKenzie, 1994; Walz&Niehoff, 2000). This trend go hand in hand with the reduction cost, although it improves the efficiency, production quantity as well as profitability. Several machanisms sometimes can underpin the relationship between (OCB) and workplace effectiveness ( Borman&Motowidlo, 1993; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff&MacKenzie, 1997). At fist when it happens that experienced employees exhibit (OCB), the chances might be high because they are likely to impact the same knowledge and skills they acquired to incoming employees which in return improve their productivity. Secondly, some facets related to (OCB) epecialy the civic virtue which is paramount and voice behavior, this might facilitate the organization to be identified as an example in the field of innovative solutions. The (OCB) also can promote positive emotions which come with feeling, cohesion and morale. References ALLEN, T. D. (2006). Rewarding good citizens: The relationship between citizenship behavior, gender, and organizational rewards. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 120-143. ALLEN, T. D., FACTEAU, J. D., & FACTEAU, C. L. (2004). Structured interviewing for OCB: Construct validity, faking, and the effects of question type. Human Performance, 17, 1-24. ALLEN, T. D., & RUSH, M. C. (1998). The effects of organizational citizenship behavior on performance judgments: A field study and a laboratory experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 247-260. ALLEN, T. D., & RUSH, M. C. (2001). The influence of ratee gender on ratings of organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 2561- 2587. MACKENZIE, S. B., PODSAKOFF, P. M., & AHEARNE, M. (1998). Some possible antecedents and consequences of in-role and extra-role salesperson performance. Journal of Marketing, 62, 87-98. MACKENZIE, S. B., PODSAKOFF, P. M., & FETTER, R. (1991). Organizational citizenship behavior and objective productivity as determinants of managerial evaluations of salespersons performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 123-150. Read More