Personality and Job Performance: A Relationship Analysis - Literature review Example

 Personality and Job Performance: A Relationship Analysis Abstract This paper examines eight different research studies in regards the relationship between personality and job performance. The studies vary in the approaches used and aspects analyzed. I focus in particular on emotional intelligence as one aspect of personality that could affect job performance, along with the more traditional studies of the ‘Big Five’ personality dimensions. In addition, various job types are examined including how personality relates to managerial performance (Thomas & Moody, 2009); sales performance (Sjoberg, Littorin, & Engelberg, 2005); and customer service performance (Haq, et al., 2010), among other areas. Personality and Job Performance: A Relationship Analysis This paper examines various scholarly articles and studies on the relationship between personality and job performance in order to determine if personality is a reliable indicator of job performance. In examining different studies, I will comment on the methodology and research designs employed and compare it to various conclusions or empirical findings of the researcher. The first study was performed by Barrick & Mount (1991). They chose to investigate the ‘Big Five’ personality factors of Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience. Those factors were compared to job performance areas in job proficiency, training proficiency, and personnel data. The authors comment that this study was needed as there was no widely accepted given structure for categorizing different personality traits (Barrick & Mount, 1991). The study analyzes the ‘Big Five’ traits in regards to specific occupations, instead of the workforce as a whole. The occupations analyzed are professionals, police, managers, sales, and skilled or semi-skilled workers (Barrick & Mount, 1991). The authors’ hypothesize that emotional stability and conscientiousness will be equally applicable to all five job types, as they appear the most independent of the type of job performed. In addition, they expect individuals scoring high on neuroticism will be less successful, regardless of the type of occupation. The characteristics of Extravaversion and Agreeableness are expected to only positively correlate to successful performance in sales and management, since those are two criteria generally thought to be indicators of good job performance in a limited number of fields that involve heavily interpersonal communication. Openness to Experience is predicted to correlate only to one job performance area of Training Proficiency (Barrick & Mount, 1991). The final research question that the authors address does not have a formal hypothesis, yet the authors attempt to determine if validity coefficients for the ‘Big Five’ differ for objective criteria versus subjective criteria (Barrick & Mount, 1991). The authors used as their test sample data of previous research studies from the years 1952-1988. The analysis found 117 prior studies to be suitable for this research project. A sample size of 162 was extracted from the 117 prior research projects. The studies were then broken into five major occupational groups: professionals (5% of the sample total); police (13% of the sample total); managers (41% of the sample total); sales (17% of the sample total); and skilled or unskilled labor (24% of the sample total). The three criteria used were job performance, training proficiency, and personnel data (Barrick & Mount, 1991). The information classification for these prior studies from 1952-1988 were categorized by six trained professionals in the psychology field. A variety of tests were performed including; (1) an analysis of the validity of the Big Five for each category of occupations; (2) examination of the personality dimensions for the three types of criteria; and (3) a study relating to how valid the personality dimensions are for objective versus subjective data (Barrick & Mount, 1991). The hypothesis that Emotional Stability is an indicator of good job performance was not statistically significant. The hypothesis that Extraversion and Agreeableness are valid indicators for jobs such as sales as management, as was earlier predicted, held true for only Extraversion, but not for Agreeableness. The single most significant finding was regarding Conscientiousness. As was predicted, this trait was a reliable prediction of job performance for all occupational types and for all criteria types. The remaining support for the other personality dimensions was not statistically significant (Barrick & Mount, 1991). A second study in examining personality and job performance was undertaken by Furnham, Jackson, and Miller (1999). The study analyzed 203 tele-sales agents from insurance companies. Of the participants examined, 103 were from service jobs while 42 were from sales roles. The authors mention a reason for tests such as this is to understand high turnover rates at certain jobs, such as telesales. They indicate that an increasing number of studies are showing personality measurements being significantly related to job performance (Furnham et al., 1999). The Furnham et al. (1999) study used a learned style questionnaire (LSQ) that gave scores on 4 styles of learning: Activists; reflectors; theorists; and pragmatists. Each of the 203 individuals also completed an Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) test to measure extraversion and neuroticism. The primary reason for the EPI test was the test’s strong indications of reliability and validity (Furnham et al., 1999). The dependent variable for Furnham et al’s (1999) test is a yearly performance ranking by the employee’s immediate supervisor. The yearly performance gave a score of 1 to 4 with 4 being most favorable for both overall job performance, and overall development potential of the employee (Furnham et al. 1999). The study focused on learning style predictors as indicated through the LSQ in gauging the employee’s performance. These are simply preferred ways of learning by the employee. It was predicted that the activist and pragmatic learning methods would be reflective of higher supervisor approvals, while theorist and reflector style of learning would result in lower scores given by the employees’ supervisors (Furnham et al, 1999). The results found that activists score well on extroversion; determination; and being openly honest. Reflectors show introversion, while theorists showed low psychoticism. Pragmatics showed extroversion. Neuroticism was not found to be tied closely to any learning style. Interestingly, the time employed at the company had no effect on supervisor ratings. However, personality and the learning styles were strong indicators of supervisor approval rankings (Furnahm et al., 1999) In sum, the best indicator of a good performance ranking was learning ability over personality types. This could lead to interesting further studies, especially since learning quickly is key in today’s work environment. A third study by Haq et al. (2010) sought to find a relationship between the ‘Big Five’ and customer service relationship management (CRM). In short, CRM is attempting to build loyal customer relationships. It includes maintaining overall customer loyalty in the context of the normal business mission of having long-term profitable customer relationships. The authors mention that CRM is a strategic management concept focusing on customer needs and expectations (Haq et al. 2010). This study looks at the ‘Big Five’ in relation to perceived customer relationship satisfaction. The study had 5 different hypotheses. The first four hypothesis state that those with an extraverted personality; an agreeable personality; open to experience personality; and conscientious personality will all be positively related to perceived customer relationship management. Only a neurotic personality is proposed to have a negative relationship to perceived CRM (Haq et al., 2010) The study began with a sample size of 106 customers. Personality was measured by the ‘Big Five’ on a 44 item questionnaire to the customers. Responses ranged from 1=strongly disagree to 6=strongly agree. Results show the dependent variable of good customer management to have a positive correlation to all 4 expected personality factors including extraversion; agreeableness; openness to experience; and conscientiousness. Only neuroticism had a negative correlation to CRM (Haq et al., 2010) A key conclusion to this study is that the personality of the customer is vital for the company to have a good customer relationship management. Personality information of customers can be logged by a company, and then various techniques used to influence the customer’s perception of company-to-customer relationships. Since neuroticism especially has a negative impact on CRM, organizations need to give attention on how to satisfy that particular type of customer (Haq et al., 2010). A fourth study by Thomas & Pandy (2009) analyzes the relationship between personality and job performance by managers. The authors used various studies to identify traits of good managers including: (1) being ‘people oriented’ by leading and guiding lower level workers effectively; (2) thinking outside the box, which is solving problems through either original or creative ways; (3) being performance driven, which means understanding both what the most critical indicators of performance are, along with why they are important and how to implement them effectively. The authors further narrowed down four critical functions of managers to be planning, organization, leading, and controlling (Thomas & Pandy, 2009) Thomas & Pandy (2009) studied a sample size of 80 managers. Surveys were sent to test managers on 20 aspects of personality with the goal of seeing what separates high performing managers apart from the low performing ones. The results found that there was a statistically significant difference in high performers with regards to: (1) foresightedness; (2) optimism; and (3) action orientation (Thomas & Pandy, 2009). High performers are more concerned with consequences of long-term decision making. In addition, these individuals try to speculate on different future scenarios and prepare accordingly. The top managers also have long-term versus short-term focus. These managers are optimistic and assured of positive outcomes for the future. They also tend to be proactive and push for results. In conclusion, to be scored as a top performer in management, one should be proactive; optimistic; and long-range in planning development (Thomas & Pandy, 2009). A fifth study was conducted by Jayan (2006) with analyzing emotional intelligence, attitudes, and personality in relation to job performance. Jayan (2006) found that emotional intelligence is significantly related to job performance. In general terms, emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability to exert motivation and persistence in light of difficulties. Also included in the definition of emotional intelligence is controlling impulses; delaying gratification; and minimizing distresses (Jayan, 2006). Jayan (2006) sampled 204 mid-level managers through an emotional intelligence inventory. A total of 20 different areas of competency were examined in one of four sectors: (1) self-awareness; (2) self-management; (3) social awareness; and (4) social skills. In addition to the emotional intelligence survey, a job attitude scale survey was performed which covered 3 areas: (1) job involvement; (2) job commitment; and (3) job satisfaction (Jayan, 2006). A third and final survey test was included. This was a performance rating. This test was completed by a supervisor, a co-worker, and the individual being tested. Seven variables were found to be statistically significant indicators of a manger’s performance. The first was adaptability, and more than an 11% variation in performance was found on this variable. That indicates it is the best predictor of manager’s performance. Next in importance was organizational awareness followed by ‘developing others’. Trustworthiness, job satisfaction, and influence were the remaining significant variables. In conclusion, of the 27 variables examined, the six above mentioned variables accounted for the most significant indicators between personality and job performance (Jayan, 2006). Rothmann & Coetzer (2003) had a research objective to find the relationship between job performances of a group of pharmacists using the ‘Big Five’ personality traits. The research was conducted by cross-sectional surveys. Rothman’s & Coetzer’s (2003) study included a sample size of 159. One hundred pharmacists were included along with 59 non pharmacists. The NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) method was used to measure the 5 factor model of personality. In addition, performance questionnaires were employed to measure the job performance of the pharmacists. The questionnaire included 30 items to measure performance, creativity, and management skills (Rothmann & Coetzer, 2003). The results found that employees scoring high on Neuroticism had poorer job performance. Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness were all associated with task performance and creativity. The personality factors of Emotional Stability, Openness to Experience, and Agreeableness were all significantly associated with high management performance (Rothmann & Coetzer, 2003). A study by Sjoberg, Littorin, & Engelberg (2005) examined the role of personality and emotional intelligence in sales performance. The authors noted that while the subject of emotional intelligence has gained a great deal of attention, there have not been many studies on the subject in regards to a high-stakes situation analysis. In order to analyze such a situation, the area of sales was chosen. The authors wished to see if emotional intelligence can overcome the often strong fears of economic and personal failures that are often placed on salespeople (Sjoberg et al., 2005). In particular, an examination of emotional intelligence in regards to work/life balance; affective tone, or the ability to remain positive; and materialistic perceptions and overall attitude towards money. The participants in the study are 45 individuals who work for a large telecommunications company. A method called ‘Motowildo’s Approach’ was used to measure job performance (Motowildo, Borman, & Schmidt, 1997). The approach makes a distinction between job performance and a concern with social ideals of a job (Sjoberg, et al., 2005). The actual test session had 10 aspects: (1) test of creativity; (2) personality tests part 1; (3) problem emotion assessment tests; (4) personality tests part 2; (5) work / life balance; (6) failure management; (7) risk; (8) attitude toward money; (9) work performance; (10) assessment of emotions by examining photos (Sjoberg et al., 2005). The results of the tests were as the authors predicted. Emotional intelligence was positively related to work / life balance along with affective tone. As a result of the latter, cynical or negative individuals are not high in emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence was negatively related to preoccupation with money and being materialistic. The authors noted that emotional intelligence is of some importance for sales, but not the prime factor. Conscientiousness and positive effect were found to be the personality factors with greatest importance (Sjoberg et al., 2005). A final study is performed by Lopes, et al. (2006) in order to see if emotional intelligence is related to work performance and attitude on the job. The study’s hypothesis was that emotional intelligence is revealed in certain job performance data such as salary, position held, and the percent of annual raise received. Also included was emotional intelligence as it pertains to attitudes at work and interpersonal cooperation (Lopes, et al., 2006). The method study had 44 finance department members of a large insurance company as participants. To measure emotional intelligence, the MCEIT or Mayer-Salovey-Caruso (Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso, 2002) test was used. The MSCEIT included 8 tasks in different areas such as Perceiving Emotions; Using Emotion; Understanding Emotion; and Managing Emotion. The test was scored using expert opinions. In previous studies, expert opinions were found to be more reliable than consensus norms (Lopes, et al., 2005). Data such as salary and title along with percent of the past year’s salary increase were retrieved from the company databases. Managers and peers gave rankings of six different indicators of the participants’ interpersonal skills: (1) interpersonal sensitivity; (2) socialness; (3) positive interaction; (4) negative interactions; (5) likability; and (6) role in adding to a positive workplace (Lopes, et al., 2005). The results showed that overall emotional intelligence was significantly associated with the percent of salary increase, along with the individual’s title at the company. However, there was no correlation to salary. There were a number of relationships found in emotional intelligence and the variables that were used. For example, Managing Emotions had a high statistical significance to both salary and company title. Emotional intelligence was found to be positively related to three traits that were ranked by peers: Interpersonal sensitivity; socialness; and contributing to a healthy work environment. Emotional intelligence was also positively correlated to the following items in the survey of managers: socialness; likeability; and contributing to a healthy work environment (Lopes, et al., 2008). In summary; the emotional intelligence of the employees were measured by performance testing along with peer and supervisor surveys. As expected, emotional intelligence was positively and significantly significant to various measures of work performance including the title of the employee; the percent of yearly salary increase; and the ratings of interpersonal skills by the employees’ co-workers (Lopes, et al., 2008). References Barrick, M. & Mount, M. (1991). The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Personnel Psychology 44 (1), 1-27. Furnham, A., Jackson, C., & Miller, T. (1999). Personality, Learning Style, and Work Performance. Personality and Individual Differences 27 (1), 1113-1122. Haq, I., Ramay, M., Rehman, M. & Jam, F. (2010). Big Five Personality and Perceived Customer Relationship Management. Research Journal of International Studies 15 (1), 37-45. Jayan, C. (2006). Emotional Competence, Personality and Job Attitudes as Predictors of Job Performance. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology 32 (2), 135-144. Lopes, P., Grewal, D., Kadis, J., Galb, M. & Salovey, P. (2006). Evidence that Emotional Intelligence is Related to Job Performance and Affect and Attitudes at Work. Psicothema 18 (1), 132-138. Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. (2002). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT): User’s manual. Toronto: Multi- Health Systems, Inc. Motowidlo, S. J., Borman, W. C., & Schmit, M. J. (1997). A Theory of Individual Differences in Task and Contextual Performance. Human Performance, 10, 71-83. Rothmann, S. & Coetzer, E. (2003). The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Job Performance S.A. Journal of Industrial Psychology 29 (1), 68-74. Sjoberg, L., Littorin, P., & Engelberg, E. (2005). Personality and Emotional Intelligence as Factors in Sales Performance. Organisational Theory and Practice 2 (1), 21-37. Thomas, C. & Pandy, V. (2009). Relationship Between Personality and Managerial Performance Central Test International, 1-25. Read More