Turkey Politics from the Ottoman Empire Period until our very Modern day - Coursework Example

TURKEY POLITICS FROM THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE PERIOD UNTIL OUR VERY MODERN DAY Number February 25, OUTLINE I. INROUDUCTION II.ISLAM RELIGION AND OTTOMAN EMPIRE A. Entry of Islam religion B. Ottoman empire wars C. World War I III. SECULARIZATION IN MODERN ERA TURKEY A. Early secularization B. Change through Mustafa Kamal C. After Kamal to modern Turkey 1.0. Introduction The Ottoman empire of turkey is viewed to have had a major impact among all its preceding empires like seljuq and mongol empires. It succeeded the mongol rule, which had founded the numerous Antolian principalities among them the Germiyanids and Karamanids. During the decline of the Byzantine Empire, the Beylik of the ottoman dynasty, a small developing state located at the Northwest of Anatolia had already been established. The ottoman dynasty grew substantially both physically and in its powers to replace the Byzantine Empire and spread throughout the Balkans. Its political history was attached to Islam religion, within a monarchial leadership under the Islamic ideology, reserved power to a single leader and its strongly established military. However, after its peak season in power, the 19th century saw a revolution of the political system under Mustafa Kamal, who introduced varying legal, social, and political reforms in Turkey. It is believed that it was under his authoritarian rule that led to an introduction of democracy in the country, through his government actions of reform and smooth transfer of power after a long period of one ruling party to an opposition, which paved way for development of multiple parties. 1Today, Turkey is a country that remains in a world’s focused geographical location, due to its cultural and religious views that are crucial to both the interests of the Western and Eastern nations. The changes in the political structure from ancient times to the modern turkey were not easy, but accompanied by numerous wars and military separation. 2.0. Islam Religion and Ottoman Empire 2.1. Entry of Islam religion Before Constantinople was invaded by Muslims, it was the most crucial point of the Christian Byzantine Empire, which had established itself for over a thousand years. 2After the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II led to its conquest in 1453, Constantinople became the capital of the Ottoman empire and renamed it ‘Instanbul’ meaning the city of Islam, the sultan authority executed many in the population (the majority of the population were christians), forcing others into exile, while replacing the city’s population with other people, but from within Ottoman territory. Of course this was a blow to the Europeans nations, which had struggled to spread the Christianity in the world. Constantinople being a well strategized location for reaching out to the people in Europe and Africa, in their trading activities was one way to shake the foundation of the Christian faith and European countries. As a result of the massive killings in effort to conquer Constantinople, Ottoman Empire suppressed resistance from the Christian population, who were forced to live within the principles and under authority of Islamic directives. According to 3Kuru and Stepan, the empire had formed a strong Islamic religious identity, such that the religion could be characterized as subordinate to its leadership. The Empire was highly influenced by the cultures and faiths of the people it incorporated in diversity; Christianity, people’s traditions, and Islam. However, 4the non Muslim communities were categorized in a millet system as the minorities who had limited powers to control their own affairs within the Ottoman Empire. Although some people could refute this, the Christians were treated with leniency in the empire compared to other places or Empires in the world. They were disadvantaged, but somehow, some were beneficiaries. The leniency and incorporations of different people and cultures was as a need to obey the Islamic rule that urges Muslims to respect other religions. Even though some Christians in certain parts of the Empire were forced to give out some of their children to the state, it was evident that their service to the Empire made them wealthy and prosperous afterwards. For a fair deal, these children had to be converted into Muslims and forget their former faith. Being an Islamic Empire, the ruler served as the caliph, acquiring the temporal and spiritual authority, which made Islam to play a more constrained role within the Empire. Following the numerous establishments, it was evident that most of the influence originated from Islamic faith. Further, 5Kuru and Stepan mentioned that in its distinguished function, religion as an institution was supportive in the administration of the empire, while as a system of beliefs availed the tools for everyday practice. This was because Ottomans claimed Islam as their main source of legitimacy, hence embracing Islam than other religions in the Empire. 2.2. Ottoman Empire Wars Just like other monarchial rulers, the Empire’s leadership was passed down to the linage of one family; meaning the sultan position was determined by birth in the royal family. As the empire’s main principle, it strived for expansion and conquest of other dynasties to reinforce its stability. Therefore, the numerous wars it engaged in enabled the empire to have more power and exploit more resources. 6Before the fall of empire, it had dominated various parts of North Africa, Middle East, parts of Asia and Balkan states of Southern Europe. 7After a long struggle of Shi’ites and Sunni Islam believers, the Ottoman army (Sunni Muslims) captured Tigris Euphrates river valley, Basra and Baghdad, known to be a location of Sunni and Shi’ite religious boundary. The internal conflict and the external forces was intense following the overthrow of the Christian byzantine rule. Some Christians who fled in the neighboring strong holds of Christianity such as Italy, Greek, and European nations had initiated their renaissance and spurred others against the Ottoman rule. Some earlier Muslim leaders in wars had formed a habit decapitating the defeated leaders and army men, as a warning to their challenging Christian counterparts. 8Similarly, the Ottoman rule in 1389, upon victory over Christian Serbs in Kosovo battle, the Serbian king and numerous Christian prisoners were beheaded by the Muslim army, and at the seize of Constantinople, the Byzantine emperor was decapitated and his head exhibited in various cities of the sultan’s jurisdiction. The wars also saw Ottoman rule lose captured lands in the liberation period, freeing most of the Christians and the lands from the oppressive governance. The 15th century was the peak period of the empire’s power, conquering most of the empires in North Africa and Syria. It added up its military, slaves, lands and resources, but towards the end of the 16th century, most of these wealths and prestige was been watered down. 9Driven by its desire to conquer European territory, the military of Hapsburg king of Austria, defeated the Ottomans leading to loss of substantial power and Hungary as part of their land, they were also defeated by the a combined naval army (from Britain, Russia, and French) in Ottoman’s effort to crush Christian Greeks. Bulgaria and Albania also claimed their independence at the wake of 19th century, during the Young Turks revolt. There were other numerous attempts to conquer Vienna, but terribly failed due to the European resistance through its organized army, which was an important weakening point of Ottoman power and invasions for its interest. 2.3. World War I During the World War I, Ottoman Empire supported the Germans and Austrians against the British and Russians hoping to bring together the Islamic countries against division in war. It has received support from various Islam nations, but in the same course, the Islamic economies, social and political activities had been drawn to the international conflict. Muslim men were being forced to fight or become laborers in support of the war sided by the Ottomans. After the long unexpected period of war, 10the internal stability of Ottoman empire was weakened due to internal groups rebellion (Armenian Christians and Hejaz Arabs), external pressures affecting the economy, and natural disasters of famine and drought destabilizing the social structure and causing civilians death. Considering that a great number of other Islamic countries’ men had dedicated their effort in the war, which the Ottoman, German, and Austria group lost, not only was the empire destroyed, but also cost their political alliance with other Arab societies. Basically, the Ottoman rule made wrong estimations for the duration of war and instead of lasting for short period as they expected, the war extended for several years. The empire suffered from food shortage, due to the prolonged droughts and low labor supply following high number of recruits in the war. The army separated into several groups weakening the power of the political Ottoman kingdom. According to 11Scbulze, the war caused nearly 375 thousands casualties on Ottomans side of war, let alone the approximated 2 to 3 million civilians who were killed or died out of starvation. Ottoman lost more territorial lands; Syria and Palestine was lost to the French and British, while Egypt saw the opportunity to reorganize itself as nation under British rule. III.0. Secularization in modern era Turkey III.1. Early secularization Towards the end of the18 century, the established Islamic legal code, based on Sharia began being influenced by secular laws following the westernization activities and civilization. In the reign of the 18th century Sultans’, the period was marked by various initiations and constraints of reforms. 12Sultan Mahmut II, Abdulmesit I, Abdulaziz, and Abdulhamit II of the 18th and early 19th century began the change through the Tanzimat reform, which led to formation of Nizamiye new created secular courts during Abdulaziz reign. With the numerous Christians minorities within the declining Ottoman and neighboring Europe, civilization and modernization would have been easy via the trading and movement activities. Each attempt of reform was constrained by various internal and external factors, hence complicating the reform process. However, in this period of secularization, the 13reforming Turkey adopted commercial code from France and Maritime Commerce code in 1850 and 1863. It was a major impact in the education, cultural, and political systems, creating a way for common people education and marked by a changing mode of dressing. 14Sultan Abdulhamit II was succeeded by the Yong Turks regime of 1908 to 1918 who extended the reforms, but dragged the Ottomans and their western introduced reforms, through its revolt to the World War I at the empires crush. The Youg Turks regime brought to power dedicated officials towards enforcing Ottoman reform, after reforming the cabinet and secularizing the judicial system. For the first time, women had the opportunity to receive education just like in the western world. According to 15Zapotozyny, Yong Turks movement enforced the restoration of the 1876 constitution, established many reforms and put up another parliament for development of the modern Turkish Republic. The reforms had to be interfered with again during the Second World War, but paved way for the establishment of Turkish republic under Mustafa K after the Yong Turk cabinet resigned after the war, the British closure of Istanbul parliament and agreement into a peace treaty. III.2. Change through Mustafa Kamal The British had an earlier interest of establishing an autonomous Kurdish territory under their own appointed individual (Mahmud), a wealthy land owner and a popular political influence during 1920s, but a tactical man with personal sided interests. 16With the Greeks war on Turkey in 1921 to conquer Ankara, Mustafa Kemal Pasha army defeated the Greek forces and he emerged as the leader of the new Turkey, who later followed to the cancellation of the Sevres Treaty of 1920 that could see their Arab populated land partitioned, probably invaded by foreigners. Mustafa K had been appointed as the inspector general of the 9th army by Sultan Muhammad VI, from which he took the opportunity to form renaissance that successfully challenged the western allies. He had a unique stand in the Yong Turks movement and being well educated and knowledgeable in the western cultures, it was easy for him to gather troops for wars against the Greeks and get people to trust him. He successfully steered the 17abolishment of the Sevres treaty, and called for its revision, which paved a 1923 agreement of the treaty of Lausanne that saw modern Turkey regain control of Aegean islands and areas near Constantinople. Kamal’s achievements: He was first of all able to organize an army against the Yong Turks leadership, which had annoyed most people through the signing of the Sevres treaty, and managed to deliver the Republic of Turkey from ruins after war. 18He later set up a nationalistic party, ‘People’s party’ parallel to the young Turks and other allies, which became the sole representative of Turkey national, with him as the commander in chief of the national army in 1923, that cleared the country off foreign troops, inclusive the Italian, French, and later blocked fiercely the Greeks from smashing the nationalist Turks. Under the people ‘s party, 19three laws were passed abolishing the ministry of canon laws based on religious foundations, public education for all children was instituted, and the caliphate as structured in the Ottoman rule abolished. The changes influenced both the Turkey Muslims and non-Muslims lives, to adopt westernization. It was a breakdown of the Islamic empire into a secular nation that focused on homogenizing the nation. Hence, it had to disregard the differences arising from religion, ethnicity, and linguistic, embrace culture and redefine every citizen status, inclusive of the non-Muslims. The changes brought civilization and literacy in the future of Turkey, people from different religions could intermarry, polygamy was abolished and divorce allowed, Islamic law courts were closed and a republican constitution was adopted. Women were further empowered, and the economic development was revived under Kamal. Basically, he successfully initiated the reform to adopt the western system, whose impact was great in the social, economic, and political development of Turkey after WWI. III.3. After Kamal to modern Turkey The period was marked by serious engagement of multiple political parties to create opposition of the government. 20After the succession of Kamal Pasha by Ismat Pasha, the WWII came in but Turkey never got to be actively involved; however, the Republican Party in power was challenged by the Democratic Party that won the elections, forcing the republicans out and they became the opposition. The rule under the Democratic Party was characterized by corruption and misuse of power in the country’s management, which caused political riots and civil wars within the nation. 21The military leaders had to intervene for peace within Turkey severally, and ended up in change over of the constitution again that allowed another election, which put back Ismat Pasha to power under the alliance of Republican People Party and Justice Party. Nevertheless, achieving stability was not possible and the government has been changing under different coalitions and multiple parties. 22As of the 1980s and 1990s, Islamic parties began forming again, but the Turkey constitution banned them that they had to restructure themselves into a neutral party, APK that won the elections in 2001, though accused of having a stealth Islamic agenda. Owing to the vast Muslim bloc that had hugely voted for them, it made attempt to assist the group, but through the legal framework, the leadership including Recep Teyep Erdogan as the prime minister had to change the focus from religious based issues, to the Turkey economy and reform. Today Turkey stands at a better political platform and a stable government, unlike before and after WW II. Bibliography BBC. “Ottoman Empire (1301-1922).”bbc.co.uk. Last modified September 4, 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/ottomanempire_1.shtml. Beck, Sanderson. “Ottoman Fall and Turkey 1908-1950.” beck.org. Accessed 25 February, 2013, http://www.san.beck.org/16-2-OttomanFall%26Turkey.html. Bukey, David. From Muhammed to Bin laden: Religious and ideological sources of the Homicide Bombers phenomenon. New Brunswick: transaction publishers, 2008. Chaurasia, R. S. History of the Middle East. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers &Distributors, 2005. 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