Causes of the Revolution of 1912 in China - Report Example

Causes of the Revolution of 1912 in China? Introduction The history of China is illustrious, complex, and multi-varied. While the United s’ history spans only two hundred and fifty years, Chinese history spans thousands of years, through dynasties, revolutions, and profound political and cultural upheaval. With such an expansive history it is almost impossible to speak of a singular ‘history of China’; instead, it seems researchers and students must think in terms of Chinese histories. The 20th century alone witnessed considerable political and cultural change. Driving much of this cultural change were a series of revolutions that would profoundly impact the very structure of the mega-populace that today has become the People’s Republic of China. The Revolution of 1912, also referred to as the Xinhai Revolution, was at the center of this structural change. The 1912 Revolution is recognized to have occurred between October 10, 1911 and February 12, 1912.1 The ultimate impact of the revolution was the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the institution of the People’s Republic of China. This research examines the elements leading the revolution to its peak and important aspects. Analysis Theoretical Framework The specific elements that caused the revolution, while agreed to on a broad level, differ among theorists in terms of specifics. It seems that two main perspectives have emerged. The first perspective considers the revolution in terms of major events, within cause and effect dialectic. The second perspective both augments and supplants this perspective. This perspective considers the revolution in terms of the political, cultural, and intellectual elements that conspired to cause such widespread structural change. Within these perspectives are central thorough-puts that consider notions of political and intellectual determinism and potential macro-necessities related to the significant change that took place. This research considers these elements from a multi-dimensional perspective. Intellectual Contributions Perhaps the most overarching perspective on the contributing elements to the 1912 Revolution considers change in terms of intellectual and political elements. In these regards, there were a number of specific groups that formed contributing to many of the changes that would later occur through actual uprisings. In the early parts of the 20th century, Mainland China would undergo significant intellectual change. A history had been established in China where imperial examinations were implemented to select the best and brightest individuals for administrative positions in government. In 1906 these examination were abolished and the Qing government placed considerably more emphasis on educational infrastructure, and encouraged many students to study abroad.2 These students became exposed to multi-cultural ideas and perspectives and returned to China and creative what would become a new intellectual class of thinkers. Where these individuals had previously been education almost entirely within the construct of the Chinese political apparatus, these international perspectives greatly impacted the intellectual culture of the country and created a group of intellectuals that have profound impacts. Among some of the most prominent thinkers that emerged during this period include Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren, Hu Hanmin, Liao Zhongkai, Zhu Zhixin and Wang Jingwei; notably, all of these individuals were once Chinese students studying in Japan.3 Zou Rong, an individual influenced by these ideas, would write the seminal text Revolutionary Army calling for the dissolution of the Qing dynasty.4 While the ideas that individuals held were highly important, perhaps more significant were the groups that the changing intellectual culture engendered. Revolutionary Groups While the imperialist examinations weren’t abolished until 1906, changing conceptions of politics and culture influenced the formation of anti-Qing groups as early as the late 19th century. Early anti-dynastic groups include Yeung Kui-wans ‘Furen Literary Society.’ Emerging in 1890 this group was dedicated to the re-establishment of the Han Chinese government instead of the Qing dynasty. Although ideologically this group and others like it did not have the focus of later era groups, the seeds of the ultimate 1912 Revolution can be seen in these early causal elements. The early 20th century witnessed the formation of a variety of groups with more pronounced intellectual intentions. Among the prominent groups that were established during this period were the Huaxinghui (China Revival Society), and the Guangfuhui (Restoration Society). One considers that the motto of Huaxinghui was, “Take one province by force, and inspire the other provinces to rise up.”5 Sun Yat-sen would eventually unite these groups under the name Tongmenghui (United League) in 1905. This would become one of the most significant groups of the later revolution. Another notable group was Gelaohui (Elder Brother society). This group is highly significant, as it would later develop strong ties with the Communist party. While these groups were the most notable, they were far from the only groups.6 Rather a plethora of organizations emerged during this period. One considers the notion of paradigm development in relation to these specific elements. The notion of the paradigm, as established by Thomas Kuhn argues that large-scale intellectual changes occur through the culmination of ideas that are contrary to the dominant paradigm.7 Within this specific investigation these groups, while physical entities, also symbolized the intellectual ideals that ran counter to the dominant Qing paradigm. Pre-Wuchang Uprisings Along with the development of these revolutionary groups were a series of uprisings. Just as the revolutionary groups would evolve and sharpen their intentions from their proto late 19th century roots, so would the uprisings experience an evolutionary process. Theorists that consider the prominence of these uprisings as being more significant than intellectual changes root the initial demonstrations that would lead to the 1912 Revolution to the 1895 First Guangzhou Uprising. This uprising was organized by the Revive China Society and featured Sun Yat-sen. The group had planned on swiftly attaching Guangzhou, but word leaked to the Qing Dynasty and they arrested the revolutionaries involved before significant action could be made. Following this uprising there were a series of uprisings that occurred between these periods until the 1911 Second Guangzhou Uprising. While these uprisings only experienced moderate success, they largely contributed to a culture that recognized political revolt and the potential for revolution as an aspect of daily life. Wuchang Uprising One of the most pivotal elements of the 1912 Revolution was the Wuchang Uprising. This uprising began on October 10, 1911 and would profoundly impact the shape and direction of the revolution. Among theorists that emphasize more deterministic aspects of the revolution over purposeful intellectual change consider that it was less planned elements that caused the Wuchang Uprising, but instead a more natural offshoot of the railway crisis that occurred. After the nationalization of the country’s railway system many employees experienced great dissatisfaction, as this necessitated a general dissolution in working conditions.8 Eventually there was a major strike that occurred in response to these government actions. After the strike revolutionary groups began to gather in the region. One day a bomb set off accidently and the revolutionary groups and faced having their identities revealed. Along with the New Army these groups recognized that they must stage a coup. What followed was the first major revolutionary success of the century, as the revolutionary groups with the New Army were successful in defeating government troops and capturing strategic points in the city. After this success the New Army established a military government in Hubei. Li Yuanhong became the new governor. Following the establishment of the military government the groups involved called for other provinces to join their cause and support the revolution. On October 12, 1911, after the taking of Hankou and Hanyang, the revolutionaries declared the founding of the Republic of China.9 Post-Wuchang Uprising Events While the Wuchang Uprising is recognized as perhaps the most pivotal moment in the revolution, a great amount of other uprising and political changes occurred after this event. After a series of uprisings a great amount of regions declared their own independence. Among the most prominent such regional changes involve the Guangdong declaration of independence. A number of revolutionary groups organized and launched uprisings in Huazhou, Nanhai, Sunde, and Sanshui.10 These uprisings forced the Qing viceroy to discuss independence options. In Shandong the New Army and Din Weigen organized and forced the Qing Governor of Shandong, Sun Baoqi to allow the region to secede from the Qing Dynasty and declare their independence. This process occurred in a number of regions. The collection of uprisings and the establishment of independence in a variety of regions resulted in large-scale institutional change. In a last ditch effort to hold on to a modicum of control the Qing Dynasty replaced Prince Qing with Yuan Shikai as the prime minister. Additionally, the 19 Articles were passed that change Qing rule from an autocratic system with unlimited power to a constitutional monarchy. The revolutionaries ultimately rejected these changes and worked towards establishing a provincial government. After capturing Nanking, the revolutionaries made this the site of the new Chinese republic. Further events would conspire to lead to the Qing to abdicate power. Sun Yat-sen was elected the first provisional president, effectively overthrowing 2,000 years of Qing dynastic rule. Conclusion In conclusion, this essay has examined the causes and events leading up to the Chinese 1912 Revolution. Within this context of understanding it’s demonstrated that two main perspectives exist, one considering intellectual contributions, and the other the militaristic and deterministic aspects. While it is impossible to entirely remove these considerations from each other, this research argues that while the intellectual change that occurred in the early 20th century greatly contributed to the alacrity with which the revolution occurred, it seems more accurate to assume that macroeconomic trends would eventually have placed continued pressure on the dynamic restructuring of past dynastic rule. Annotated Bibliography Esherick, Joseph. Reform and Revolution. (1976) Berkeley: University of California Press. This text is highly significant to the considerations regarding the causes of the revolution as it is firmly entrenched in perspective that intellectual forces shaped and ultimately causes the revolutionary shift. Fung, S. K. (1980) The Military Dimension of the Chinese Revolution : The New Army and Its Role in the Revolution of 1911. Vancouver [B.C.]: University of British Columbia Press. Fung’s text considers many specific elements related to revolutionaries’ infiltration of the New Army and its ultimate contribution to the uprisings and revolution. Additionally analysis is given to the causes of the uprisings and the means by which that contributed to broader social change. Kuhn, Thomas. (2012). Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press. While this text specifically considers broad-scale paradigm change in terms of intellectual ideas, the research argues that the same processes that underlined the formation of intellectual ideas counter to the Qing Dynasty can be witnessed in Kuhn’s recognition of paradigm revolution. Platt, Stephen R. (2007). Provincial Patriots: The Hunanese and Modern China. Harvard University Press. While this source specifically considers revolutionaries for the Hunan region it is highly important to the research study as it provides background information to the formation and practices of many of the revolutionary groups that would later function as a pivotal force in the revolution. Shinkichi. Eto (1994) Chinas Republican Revolution. [Tokyo]: University of Tokyo Press. This text considers the revolution from an overarching context, considering intellectual and military elements with equal consideration. It functions as a strong analysis of the historical elements surround the immediate revolutionary period. Wright, Mary. (1968) China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900–1913. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. While Shinkichi’s text presented a balanced historical consideration of the events surrounding the immediate revolutionary period, Wright’s analysis is more comprehensive as it spans many of the proto-revolutionary elements that emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. Read More