Key Terms Used in History Class - Assignment Example

Order 332721 Topic: History - Key Terms (21 words Simon/Peter. Peter is important to Christians. He is their role model. They follow him blindly. “…. the gospels describe Jesus as calling Peter his “rock” upon which the future church would be built. After his martyrdom in Rome, traditions developed which led to the belief that the most important Christian church organization was located in Rome.”(Atheism…) Popes are regarded as the successors to Peter, the first leader of the Roman Church. Peter has failed in his faith on Christ. But he is still accepted with reverence by Christians, for he has marched from sinfulness to sinless ness. That is true of every individual pursuing the path of spirituality, for one has to march through many obstacles. Peter was the first to proclaim that Jesus was the Messiah, but he denied it later. Nevertheless, Peter was the most important of Jesus’ twelve apostles. He is reported to have died in Rome during the persecution of Christians by Emperor Nero around 64CE. 2. Paul/Saul Paul was born about AD 10 and his parents were Jews. He was brought up as per the faith of the Pharisees. He was converted to Christianity at the age of 32. He did meditation alone for months. He was one of the very important missionaries Christianity. He set up churches in Asia Minor and Greece. In his non-Christian life, he persecuted the early followers of Jesus, and once he was traveling on the mission to Damascus to take Christians as prisoners. “ Suddenly, as the story is told in the Bible in Acts 9, a great light shone down on him, and he heard a voice say, "Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?" He then proceeded to Damascus, a changed individual. From then onwards, he used the name Paul and began preaching in the synagogues that Jesus was the son of God. 3. New Testament “Testament comes from testamentum, the word by which the Latin ecclesiastical writers translated the Greek diatheke.”(Catholic...) To Christians “New Testament” means, the alliance established Jesus Christ between the God and the world. It is made up of twenty seven different books authored by eight different persons, out of which six are Apostles: (Matthew, John, Paul, James, Peter, Jude) and two among their immediate disciples (Mark, Luke). The New Testament was written in the space of fifty years, in the second half of the first century. Controversy regarding the writings of the New Testament continues till today. The books of the ancient times have not remained in their original forms. Differences exist between the various manuscripts of the same text. It is to be noted that the printing press was invented only in 1440 and New Testament was written many centuries before. 4. Constantine the Great, (c.274-337): “The Roman emperor, Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, or Constantine I, was born at Naissus, in Upper Moesia. He was the eldest son of Constantinus Chlorus and Helena, and first distinguished himself as a soldier in Diocletians Egyptian expedition (296), and then under Galerius in the Persian war.”(Constantine…)Before his father died, he proclaimed his son as his successor. His succession to the throne was followed by many political quarrels, and some unfortunate events like the drowning of the defeated Maxentius. A flaming cross is reported to be the reason for his conversion to Christianity. Oppression was the rule in that era, but in 313, Constantine gave civil rights and toleration to the people. He had a philanthropic heart; he punished the evil-doers and helped the poor and the needy. As a ruler of the Roman world he made Christianity the State religion. Yet political compulsions were such that he executed his eldest son Crispus and his second wife Fausta. He died on May 22,337. 5. St. Augustine of Hippo (354-386): From a loose and wicked life to a devout Christian! Augustine was born at Tagaste on 13th November, 354. His former life related to his enjoyment and secular pursuits. He led a loose life. Wicked living and false beliefs was his way of life. This son of St. Monica was born in Africa. Though brought up as a Christian he failed to understand the merits of Divine Truth. Under the influence of St. Ambrose, he realized that Christianity was the only one true religion. He happened to read the book of the Letters of St. Paul and those writings influenced him greatly. He gave up all he negative tendencies and began a new life. He was later baptized, rose to become a bishop and a great writer. His feast day is August 28th. 6. Arianism “First among the doctrinal disputes which troubled Christians after Constantine had recognized the Church in A.D. 313, and the parent of many more during some three centuries, Arianism occupies a large place in ecclesiastical history.”(Catholic…) This is the Theological teaching of Arius (ca. AD 250-336). He was a priest, who first was declared as a heretic at the Fist Council of Nicea of 325. He was later exonerated in 335 at the Fist Synod of Tyre but he was again declared a heretic after his death at the first Council of Constantinople in 381.His main contention was that there had been a time before Jesus existed. The controversial aspect of his teaching related to God the Father and son relationship of Jesus. He denied the Divinity of Jesus Christ. 7. Justinian Code: Justinian I depicted on a mosaic in the church of San vital, Ravenna, Italy. It contains the fundamental works in jurisprudence issued from 529 to 534 by this Eastern Roman Emperor. It is in Latin language. It influenced the Canon Law of the church. “We order all those who follow this law to assume the name of Catholic Christians, and considering others as demented and insane, We order that they shall bear the infamy of heresy; and when the Divine vengeance which they merit has been appeased, they shall afterwards be punished in accordance with Our resentment, which we have acquired from the judgment of Heaven.”(The Justinian….) As per this code, heretics faced outright condemnation, with no place to conduct their ceremonies. They were termed as insane and of obstinate mind. The practice of Divine Religion was termed as unchallengeable. 8. Byzantium: “Byzantium is the name given to both the state and the cultures of the Eastern Roman Empire in the Middle Ages…..These names give witness to the composite nature of Byzantium.”(Byzantium….) This was the continuation of the Roman State, a big multi-ethnic Christian State, with a network of urban centers, defended by a mobile specialized army. The system began to collapse, and confusion prevails about the beginning of Byzantine history. This civilization constitutes a major world culture. It had a strong influence during the medieval period. The later history of Western European, Slavic and Islamic cultures can be better understood in the backdrop of Byzantium culture. 9. Koran The Koran or Qu’ran is the revelation of God through the Angel Gabriel to Muhammad. He memorized the words and taught to his companions, the scribes wrote down the words. Not a single word of its 114 chapters has been ever changed since it was written. “The Koran is the primary source of every Muslims faith and practice. It deals with all the subjects that concern all human beings: wisdom, beliefs, worship, and law. However, it focuses on the relationship between God and His creatures. It also provides guidelines for a just society, proper human relationships and equal divisions of power.” (Islam….)The central theme of Islam is Monotheism. According to this religion, only one God, Allah exists. The four fundamental functions of Allah are creation, sustenance, guidance, and judgment. 10. Hagia Sophia “The Byzantine Church of Hagia Sophia stands atop the first hill of Constantinople at the tip of the historic peninsula, surrounded by the waters of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn on three sides. It was built by Justinian I between 532 and 537 and is located in close proximity to the Great Palace of the Emperors, the Hippodrome, and the Church of Hagia Irene.”(Hagia….)Justinian awarded the work to physicist Isidoros of Miletus, and mathematician Anthemios of Thrales (todays Aydin) to build a church larger and more permanent than its precedents. The important feature of the church is the grand dome. It is hailed as the technical feat for its time. The dome symbolizes the infinity of the cosmos and the Holy Soul. The dome collapsed in an earthquake in 557 and it took five years to reconstruct it. The dome withstood the two subsequent earthquakes though partially damaged. It was plundered during the invasion in 1204 and subsequently restored. Mehmed II converted it into a mosque. 11. Theodara “Empress Theodora (c. 500–548) was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian I. Along with her husband; she is a saint in the Orthodox Church, commemorated on November 14.”(Empress…) She had a humble beginning. She was a daughter of a bear keeper for the circus. The source of her earlier part of life is recorded in the Secret History of Procopius. She was an actress and she was famous for her animal acts. Her rise in the social circles was marked and she was very popular in the society. In 523 she married Justinian, the magister militum praesentalis in Constantinople. On his accession to the Roman Imperial throne in 427, she was appointed as the joint ruler of the empire. She was a strong willed woman and she established peace in the riot-torn empire by resorting to firm measures. 12. Feudalism “A political and economic system of Europe from the 9th to about the 15th century, based on the holding of all land in fief or fee and the resulting relation of lord to vassal and characterized by homage, legal and military service of tenants, and forfeiture.” (Feudalism….) The word feudalism has historical significance. Its concrete definition is not easy. Feudalism is mostly associated with the medieval age. The various facets of the society are ingrained in this term. The connotation of the word is different for capitalists and the communists. According to another school of thought, feudalism is largely a political term. There is also confusion about how feudal system originated and practiced by the society. In Europe, feudalism was a form of social order. Peasants of Europe also accepted feudalism as a way of life. 13. Charlemagne (AD 768-814) The highlight of the empire of Charemagne, the grandson of Charles Martel and son of Pepin III, is during his reign France and Germany were united, a rare event in the European history. That was in the 8th century. “His first campaign was in northern Italy. He had strong links with the Pope. “The Saxons, restless Germanic tribesmen, have long plagued the settled Frankish territories by raiding from their forest sanctuaries. Charlemagne the emperor is harmed by their depredations; Charlemagne the Christian is outraged by their pagan practices. From 772 he wages ferocious war against them.”(History of….) In this war the Irminsul (pillar of the world) was destroyed. The opposition from the Saxons continued for 30 years until at last they were forced to convert to Christianity. The rules were harsh and the punishment for refusing conversion was death. Charlemagne is hailed as the Alexander the Great and the Julius Caesar of Christian Europe. He is even venerated as a saint. 14. Alcuin (AD 735-804) He was an eminent scholar, educator and theologian. He continued to work for the cause of education and religion and he attended the Synod of Frankfort in 794. He played the major role in drafting the decrees condemning Adoptionism. Later he built n model monastic school. It is believed that he was a monk, and a member of the Benedictine Order. He did great service for the cause of education and intellectual pursuits. Talented youth were drawn to him and he took great interest in molding them. Some of his educational treatises are “On Grammar”, “On Orthography”, “On Rhetoric and the Virtues”, “On Dialectics”, etc. He was more a teacher than a thinker and helped to organize and disseminate the knowledge from the existing scholarly works. He died 19 May, 804 15. Clovis (AD-466-511) He succeeded his father as the King of the Franks of Tournai in 481. Many legends are in circulation about his personal life. As for his military conquests, by 493, he was the master of Gaul from the Loire to the frontiers of the Rhenish Kingdom of Cologne. He married Clotilda, the niece of Gondebad, King of the Burgundians. She was a Catholic. He too later embraced the Catholic faith, under strange circumstances. With wars and clever manipulations, he established a vast kingdom, and he was great administrator as well. He finally made Paris the capital of his kingdom. He acknowledged Church as a foremost civilizing force and afforded it the protection and support. He founded many couches and monasteries. Clovis died at the age of forty-five. “His sarcophagus remained in the crypt of Sainte-Geneviève until the time of the French Revolution, when it was broken open by the revolutionists, and his ashes scattered to the winds, the sanctuary of the beautiful church being destroyed.”(Catholic….) 16. Serfs “A person in a condition of servitude, required to render services to a lord, commonly attached to the lords land and transferred with it from one owner to another.”(Serfs…) Serfdom refers to the socio-economic status of bonded peasants under feudalism. The system, a form of slavery, was prevalent during the High Middle Ages in Europe. They worked in the leased fields of the landowners and in return, were offered protection. Apart from the farm work, they worked as laborers in forestry, transportation both river-based and land, mining and engaged in traditional crafts. The landlord and serfs were bound economically, socially and legally. They formed the lowest rung of the feudal society. In Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861.The status of the landlord was determined by the number of “souls” (serfs) he owned. Serfdom was a form of agricultural slavery. Serfdom sill exists in some parts of the world. 17. Rollo (AD 860-932) It goes to the credit of Vikings, the discovery of America, not to Columbus. Columbus did it 500 years later. Vikings had many chieftains. Rollo was one of the famous amongst them. He was also known as Rollo the Walker, because he had a giant physique. No horse was strong enough to carry him and he had to walk mostly. But he was a tireless walker and had tremendous stamina. He began the voyage in 885 with seven hundred ships to implement his plans to capture the city of Paris. En-route they captured Rouen and then moved to capture Paris with his ships and thirty thousand men. Expecting the attack, two walls with strong gates were built round Paris. But he failed to capture the city owing to the determination of the opposing army and the people. 18. Magna Carta Magna Carta, also called Magna Carta Libertatum (the Great Charter of Freedoms), is an English legal charter, originally issued in the year 1215. It was written in Latin. The accepted English translation of Magna Carta is Great Charter. As per the Charter King John of England to give certain rights, follow legal procedures and his will be bound by the law. It protected the rights of the King’s subjects. It allowed appeals against unlawful imprisonment. The King addresses his subjects in the beginning of the Charter. “John, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland, Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, and Count of Anjou, to his archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justices, foresters, sheriffs, stewards, servants, and to all his officials and loyal subjects, greeting.” (Magna….) The important issues covered in the Charter are, the Church shall be free, property rights, debt recovery procedures, law suits, construction of bridges over rivers, landholdings and many other secular issues, concerning the dignity of the subjects. 19. William the Conqueror “William was the natural son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, his mother, Herleva, being the daughter of a tanner of Falsie. In 1035 Robert set out upon a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, in which he died. Before starting he presented to the nobles this child, then seven years old, demanding their allegiance.”(Catholic….) But later his guardians, three of them, were murdered, attempt was made on his life, and a period of anarchy followed. He crushed the rebellion against him with the aid of Henry, King of France. Williams visited England in 1051and married the daughter of the Earl of Flanders in 1053. More and more wars followed. His ecclesiastical policy was prudent and wise. He appointed capable persons as bishops. Secular and spiritual courts were separated after applying much thought. He met with an accident on horseback that proved fatal on 9th September 1087.He had an edifying end. 20. Gregory VII “Born Hildebrand c. 1020 in Tuscany, Pope/St. Gregory VII was one of the great church reformers. Educated in Rome, Hildebrand was chaplain to Gregory VI, whose exile he shared. When Gregory VI died in 1047, Hildebrand entered a monastery where he remained until Leo IX called him to Rome to serve as treasurer of the church.”(Gregory VII….) He was elected Pope In 1073.He assumed the name of Gregory in honor of St. Gregory the Great. Immediate reforms followed like simony, lay investiture, clerical marriage etc. Dictatus papae issued in the same year clarified about the supremacy of the Pope. It proclaimed that Pope inherited the personal sanctity of St. Peter. Emperor Henry IV opposed lay investiture. Gregory died in Salerno in 1085. Pope Paul V canonized him in 1606. 21. Leo IX Pope Leo IX was born on June 21, 1002 at Egisheim, Alsace, Upper Lorraine, Germany AKA Bruno von Egisheim und Dagsburg. He wises Roman Catholic Pope from 1049-54. Through his father he was related to Emperor Conrad II. He became bishop in 1026.He took great interest in spreading the rule of the order of Cluny. “at his consecration assumed the name of Leo IX. One of his first public acts was to hold the well-known Easter synod of 1049, at which celibacy of the clergy (down to the rank of subdeacon) was anew enjoined, and where he at least succeeded in making clear his own convictions against every kind of simony.”(Pope Leo….) He later summoned the meting of the elite of clergy and initiated many reformation processes. He continued to hold many synods, the sole aim being to streamline the procedures followed by the church. He died in Rome on the 19th of April 1054. He was succeeded by Pope Victor II. ***************** Works Cited: 1. Why is Peter the Apostle (Simon Peter) Important? …. atheism.about.com/od/.../p/PeterApostle.htm - Cached – Retrieved on November 5, 2009 2. Christianity, Paul/SaulShaken and still dazzled by the light he had seen… history-world.org/paul.htm - Cached – Retrieved on November 5, 2009 3. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: New Testament Jesus Christ uses the words new testament as… Retrieved on November 3, 2009 4. Constantine the Great, c.274-337-- Cached Retrieved on November 4, 2009 5. St. Augustine of Hippo - Saints & Angels - Catholic Online... –Retrieved on November 4, 2009 6. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: ArianismFounded by Arius, belief asserting that Christ was not God like the Father… -Retrieved on November 4, 2009 7. The Justinian Code and the Catholic Faith…Justinian Code… - Retrieved on November 4, 2009 8. Byzantium: The Byzantine Studies…. Byzantium is the name given to both the state and the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire in the middle ages. ... -Retrieved on November 4, 2009 9. Islam: The KoranThe Koran is a record of the exact words revealed by God through the Angel Gabriel to Muhammad. ... library.thinkquest.org/28505/islam/koran.htm - Cached – Retrieved on November 4, 2009 10. Hagia SophiaThe Byzantine Church of Hagia Sophia stands atop the first hill of Constantinople… www.archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=2966 - Cached –Retrieved on November 4, 2009 11. Empress TheodoraThe rioters set many public buildings on fire… - Retrieved on November 4, 2009 12. Feudalism - definition of feudalism by the Free Online Dictionary ... Retrieved on November 4, 2009 13.History of CHARLEMAGNE…. – Cached-Retrieved on November 5 2009. 14. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: AlcuinLengthy article on…. www.newadvent.org/cathen/01276a.htm - Cached - Retrieved on November, 5, 2009 15. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: ClovisAlthough a Pagan… www.newadvent.org/cathen/04070a.htm - Cached - Similar 16. Serfs Definition | Definition of Serfs at Dictionary.com1…. dictionary.reference.com/browse/serfs - Cached – Retrieved on November 4, 2009 17. Famous Men of the Middle Ages - Rollo the Viking…. - Retrieved on November 4, 2009 18. Magna Carta The Great Charter of English liberty…. www.britannia.com/history/magna2.html - Cached - Retrieved on November 4, 2009 19. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: William the ConquerorBiography… www.newadvent.org/cathen/15642c.htm - Cached - Retrieved on November 5, 2009 20. Gregory VII - The Ecole GlossaryBrief biography of Pope St. Gregory VII…. ecole.evansville.edu/glossary/gregoryvii.html - Cached – Retrieved on November 5, 2009 21.Pope Leo IX Leo IX, Roman Catholic Pope from 1049 to 1054…. www.nndb.com/people/311/000095026/ - Cached – Retrieved on November 5, 2009 Read More