Evolution: The First Four Billion Years - Essay Example

Evolution: The First Four Billion Years Q.1 Do you think megafaunal extinction was the 'first' global change associated with people? It is not clear as to when the megafaunal extinction really occurred. According to Miller (2005), the Megafaunal extinction happened between 48,000 to 60,000 years ago. On the other hand, Grayson (2007) revealed that it was during the end of the last ice age (ca 15,000 to 10,000 years ago) when the large mammals started to become extinct. In Australia, it was reported that the megafaunal extinction occurred around 46,500 years ago (The Science Show, 2001). According to Tim Flannery, the megafaunal extinction in North America happened 13,000 years ago even before people arrived approximately 13,500 years ago (The Science Show, 2001). Although the megafaunal extinction occurred in different places around the world, it is not possible that this event was the first global change associated with people because of the fact that scientists have estimated that the human beings came from the chimpanzees back between 5 to 7 million years ago even before the Homo erectus in Asia and Homo neanderthalensis in Europe has evolved and became extinct (McHenry, 2009, p. 265; Stringer, 1994, p. 242). Several publications revealed that the Homo sapiens themselves practiced globalization by simply migrating out of Africa heading towards the different parts of the world (Gills & Thompson, 2006, p. 8; Brown & Siegel, 2005). Considering the possibility that the Homo sapiens left Africa around 195,000 years ago (Brown & Siegel, 2005), it is clear that globalization existed even before the megafaunal extinction occurred in the United States, Europe, and Australia. Q.2 Discuss the ways in which the development of agriculture forms the basis of nearly all future anthropogenic global change. Over the next few years, major economic changes that are now happening in the agricultural production can eventually become the basis of the future anthropogenic global change. As a common knowledge, globalization is about maximizing the use of the available human and natural resources with the least possible cost. In line with this, agricultural activities within the developed countries are likely to become less attractive in the global market because of the high labor and operational costs. Instead of purchasing agricultural products from developed countries, many people around the world would end up purchasing agricultural products from developing or underdeveloped countries because of quality and price-related issues. Because of the sudden increase in low-cost agricultural products in developing and underdeveloped countries, many people who are currently living in rural places will be encouraged to engage themselves in agriculture-related businesses. In line with this, the local farmers and agricultural businesses would see to it that they are able to increase their annual yields in order to meet the domestic and global demands for agricultural products. This is possible with the use of fertilizers and agricultural technology. Although developing and underdeveloped countries may be able to gain short-term financial income out of exporting agricultural products in different countries around the world, it remains a fact that increasing the annual yields could also result to serious environmental consequences such as soil erosion and exhausting the natural nutrients in soil (McNeill & Winiwarer, 2004; Stevenson, Wozniak, & Haoa, 1999). When this happens, changes in agricultural activities are likely to happen. Q.3 Can you think of some of the key factors (with appropriate examples) that have been involved in the collapse of a number societies? And do you think a societal collapse is associated with one major factor or is associated with a more complex combination of factors? Specifically the “Out of Africa” theory suggests that we evolved from the Africans that migrated to different countries all over the world. Evolved from the Homo heidelbergensis, the Neandertals lived in Europe and Southwest Asia approximately 130,000 years ago until 28,000 years ago (O'Neil, 2009). Societal collapse is commonly caused by more than one major factor. Among the combined factors that may have caused the extinction of the Neandertals includes: cultural, environmental, and interbreeding factors. Considering that most men in the past are engaged in hunting animals for food, there is a higher possibility that some of these men may have died in the process of gathering some food for their family members (O'Neil, 2009). Because of the possibility that there were many women as compared to men, the interbreeding among the Neandertal became insufficient to continue the expansion of their population. Likewise, the absence of male within a family circle makes the women and children not able to eat nutritious foods like meat. Another possible reason is related to environmental factor. Since the place where the Neandertal habitation was located is very cold during winter season, there is a strong possibility that some of them may have died because of hypothermia (O'Neil, 2009). In line with this, the absence of proper medical intervention has contributed to the gradual decrease in the number of Neandertal population. Q.4 Do you think an understanding of past societal collapse sheds some light on how our modern society may respond to future global change? Can you think of any direct parallels? History repeats itself. For this reason, I strongly believe that the past societal collapse could somehow shed some light on how we can positively respond to the future global changes. Cultural, environmental, and interbreeding are essential part of making sure that our society will continue to grow. However, the economic challenges that we have today somehow make some of our bachelors reluctant in getting married and have children. In some cases, married couples would choose to limit the number of their children to ensure that they could provide their children with the basic needs like food, clothing, and proper education among others. Although the reason why the Neandertal failed to continue the growth of their population is not the same with the reasons we have today, it remains a fact that the absence of interbreeding between men and women of the same race would result to the extinction of a particular race. Likewise, there is a higher chance for modern men and women of different race to end up getting married. Basically, intermarriage between two different nationalities and races may also contribute to the extinction of race. This is possible because of globalization and the presence of the Internet technology. Also a part of globalization, most of the younger generation we have today are being trained to accept the essence of diversity not only within the educational system but also within the workplace. For this reason, more people are becoming less concern about preserving one’s own race, culture, and nationality. Q.5 Briefly discuss the key aspects of global water conflicts. Water can be found in rivers, lakes, acquifers, sea, and the ocean. Aiming to satisfy the human needs such as drinkng water, irrigation and industrial purposes, the main causes of global water conflicts includes not only the degradation and pollution of the fresh water resources but also the access to nearby water resources (Haftendorn, 2000). In general, the growing number of population within a country increases the demand for clean water resources. Unfortunately, the rapid growth of industrialization all over the world pollutes the water making it unsafe for human and animal consumption. For this reason, scarcity in available water arises. For example: A power-station build close to a river may cause internal conflict with farmers and fishermen because of the fact that the power-station may pollute the water in the river. (Haftendorn, 2000) Water pollution could kill the fishes and cause harmful effects on agricultural products. For this reasons, polluting the water in the nearby rivers may cause the farmers and fishermen some problems with regards to their livelihood. The same concept applies between two countries. Given that country A causes heavy water pollution, other countries would negatively react because their own source of clean water will be affected by the pollution caused by country A. For example: A ship that was registered in the United States causes oil spill within the water jurisdiction of Europe. It is but a common reaction on the part of the European government to demand the U.S. government and the owner of the shipping line to clean up the oil spill the soonest possible time. Q.6 Do you think globalisation will limit water conflicts? Globalization is about being able to maximize the available resources at a minimum costs. Even though the modern businessmen and politicians have acknowledged the importance of building a strong international relationship with different countries all over the world, it will always remain a fact that each country has its own jurisdiction, government, culture and traditions, and the people’s need for clean water consumption. There will always be a continuous increase demand for clean water because of the growing number of population around the world. For this reason, it is impossible for globalization to limit the existing water conflicts. Access to clean water is necessary in terms of sustaining life and economic activities. Due to globalization, government in each country would start building strong political relationship with other countries in order to widen the economic progress of each country. However, there will always be a strong possibility that access to clean water will be a strong ground wherein two different countries would enter into political and economic conflict. Water conflicts happen not only between two different countries. As reported by Selby (2005), it is a fact that the incidence of water conflicts could happen among inter- or intra-state. Since water crisis can happen within the different state of a country, it is not impossible for water conflicts to happen between two different countries despite the practice of globalization today. Q.7 Discuss the key issues associated with the conservation vs preservation debate and whether this is still an issue relevant to the modern-day. Conservation is about the act of properly using the available natural resources whereas preservation is about protecting the nature from being overly used. For many years, global conservation and preservation has been the focus of many non-profit organizations around the world. Even up to the present time, the concept of conserving and preserving the natural resources is still important to prevent not only the extinction of the wildlife but also in maintaining and keeping the place we live safe for human beings. Given the fact that demand for product manufacturing would require the use of natural resources, many people are asking how much can we make use of our natural resources. To avoid the harmful effects of global warming, there is a strong need for each developed, developing and underdeveloped countries to preserve and conserve their natural resources. Because of the absence of sufficient trees and too much garbage that has not been properly disposed, climate changes such as a strong typhoon could cause a country to suffer from flash floods and landslides. Last September 26, 2009, typhoon Ondoy (Ketsana) hit the Philippines with 341-mm of rain within the short span of six hours (equivalent to more than 30 days of rainfall). (See you tube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i0kFW-n_UVI&feature=response_watch) In October 1, 2009, a strong earthquake (intensity 6.8) that caused landslide hit Indonesia killing thousands of people instantly. (See you tube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVCEDcbsi5g) Q.8 Discuss why you think sustainability has become strongly linked to contemporary environmental issues. Sustainable development is about using the natural resources in order to meet the human needs and at the same time preserving the environment to ensure that there will be available natural resources for future use. (General Assembly Resolution 42/187, 1987) Basically, the raw materials that we used in manufacturing products come from the natural resources like oil, trees and plants, among others. It takes time for these natural resources to regenerate. Given that we over use these resources, there is a strong possibility that we will eventually run out of resources that we can used in manufacturing products needed by the consumers. Because of inadequate natural resources like trees, there is a higher chance that the animals in the wild would become extinct due to lack of food and habitat. Natural resources like trees are also important in terms of keeping the air clean aside from preventing the risks that we may encounter flash floods or landslides. For this reasons, sustainability has a strong link to contemporary environmental issues. References Brown, F., & Siegel, L. (2005, February). University of Utah Public Relations. Retrieved October 3, 2009, from The oldest Homo sapiens. Fossils push human emergence back to 195,000 years ago: http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-02/uou-toh021105.php General Assembly Resolution 42/187. (1987, December 11). Retrieved October 3, 2009, from Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm Gills, B., & Thompson, W. (2006). Globalization and global history. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Grayson, D. (2007). Deciphering North American Pleistocene Extinctions. Journal of Anthropological Research , 63(2):185-213. Haftendorn, H. (2000). Water and international conflict. Third World Quarterly , 21(1):51 - 68. McHenry, H. (2009). Human Evolution. In Michael Ruse & Joseph Travis. Evolution: The First Four Billion Years. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. McNeill, J., & Winiwarer, V. (2004). Breaking the Sod: Humankind, History, and Soil. Science , 304:1627-1629. Miller, G. (2005). Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction. Science , 309:287 - 290. O'Neil, D. (2009, September 4). Retrieved September 3, 2009, from Neandertals: http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_2.htm Selby, J. (2005). The Geopolitics of Water in the Middle East: fantasies and realities. Third World Quarterly , 26(2):329 - 349. Stevenson, C., Wozniak, J., & Haoa, S. (1999). Prehistoric Agricultural Production on Easter Island (Rapa Nui), Chile. Antiquity , 73(282):801-812. Stringer, C. (1994). Evolution of early humans". in Steve Jones, Robert Martin & David Pilbeam (eds.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The Science Show. (2001, August 9). Retrieved October 3, 2009, from Megafauna Extinction: http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s356397.htm Read More