Europes Significant Events - Term Paper Example

 «Europes Significant Events» I. Introduction This paper aims to look at the history of Europe particularly on the important facts that made what Europe it is today. The following periods and influential figures in European history are important to be tackled in this paper: the Roman Empire, Charlemagne economic and monetary policies and legacy to modern Europe, Holy Roman Empire, European Christian identity, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Hitler and the WWII. It shall also discuss the steps of the European Union from the ECSC agreement to what is today. Lastly, it shall discuss prospects for Europe in future. Conventionally, Europe is one of the seven continents of the world, specifically the world’s second-smallest continent by surface area. It covers around 10, 180,000 sq. km. and about 6.8 per cent of the earth’s land area. In its north is the Arctic Ocean; the Atlantic Ocean to its west, Mediterranean Sea to its south, and the Black Sea to its southeast. It is considered the birthplace of Western culture in which European nations played a key role in global affairs particularly upon the beginning of colonialism. European nations colonized most of Africa, the Americas, and Asia by the 17th and 18th centuries.1 World War I and World War II signified a halt on the European prominence in global affairs when the United States and the Soviet Union took dominance. The two superpowers engaged in a Cold War which brought division to Europe – one camp trailing the ideals of communism while the other one promoting the principles of capitalism. The formation of the Council of Europe and the European Union was a product of European integration, whose expansion eastward started to ensue since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. II. Facts That Made What Europe is Today Europe did not emerge overtime without the significant historical events taking place in its history. These significant events were turning points to its history and legacy. A. The Roman Empire The Roman Empire refers to a period of post-republican stage of ancient Roman civilization. It pursued an autocratic form of government and vast territorial holdings in Europe. The Empire preceded a 500-year old Roman Republic which was weakened by numerous civil wars. The transition from Republic to Empire was marked by several events, such as the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator and the granting of the Roman Senate of the honorific Augustus to Octavian after the latter succeeded in the Battle of Actium.2 The name Roman Empire originates from the Latin term Imperium Romanum in which the word Imperium signifies territory to indicate the part of the world governed by the Romans. The Roman expansion started during the period of the Republic and reached its heights under Emperor Trajan wherein the territory controlled around 2,300,000 sq, mi. of land surface.3 Until this day, Roman influence upon religion, language, law, philosophy, and government still exists due to the Empire’s vast extent of influence. B. Charlemagne Charlemagne (742-28 January 814) whose name means Charles the Great, and is known as Charles I in the regnal lists of France and Germany. Charlemagne was heralded King of the Franks wherein he undertook expansions of the Frankish kingdoms into a Frankish empire.4 The empire incorporated a large part of Western and Central Europe. He conquered Italy and was a rival of the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople to which Pope Leo III crowned him Imperator Augustus. During his rule, the Carolingian Renaissance also took place, a period depicting a revival of art, religion, and culture through the Catholic Church. He helped define Western Europe and the Middle Ages through conquest and internal reforms that he initiated. During the period 780-782, Charlemagne began appointing his sons to positions of authority according to the tradition of kings and mayors of the period. He was able to make his two sons be crowned as king of Italy and king of Aquitaine by the Pope.5 C. The Holy Roman Empire The union of territories in Central Europe during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period under a Holy Roman Emperor led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, officially known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.6 The Empire was founded by Charlemagne in AD 800, considered a political entity of lands in both western and central Europe. Otto the Great was the first Holy Roman Emperor while Francis II was the last whose reign dissolved the empire during the Napoleonic Wars. At its peak, the Empire comprised the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Germany, and the Kingdom of Burgundy. Despite its name, Rome was however not included among its territories. The German states were the principal territory of the Empire and German kings were its leaders who constantly sought coronation by the popes in Rome as emperors but were always not granted.7 D. European Christian Identity Europe first promoted a Eurocentric interpretation of Christianity with a racialized theology. The movement promoted that non-Caucasian peoples possess no souls and were not included in God’s salvation. This European Christian identity was promoted in the arts, education, and religion and was the tool for invasion, such as by Spain and Portugal during the 16th century.8 Arts and culture were structured towards Christian identity in which churches abounded with statues and paintings of saints. Territories were conquered according to God, Glory, and Gold, wherein natives were radically transformed into Christians. C. Napoleon I of France Napoleon I of France was known as Napoleon Bonaparte, a French military and political leader, who acted as a general during the French Revolution. His long reign allowed him of the titles First Consul of the French Republic and Emperor of the first French Empire. He launched successful campaigns against the First and Second Coalitions undertaken against France and staged a coup d’ etat in 1799 in which he installed himself as First Consul. In 1884, he crowned himself emperor of France. The first decade of the 19th century witnessed Napoleon I turning the French army against every major European power. He launched a series of military victories in Continental Europe, which enabled him to dominate the region. In order to maintain France’s sphere of influence, he formed extensive alliances and appointed friends and family members to govern other European countries as French client states.9 Napoleon’s reign made a turning point with the French invasion of Russia in 1812 where his Grande Armee was wrecked and did not recover. The Sixth Coalition defeated his military forces at Leipzig in 1813, which invaded France and put Napoleon I to exile at the island of Elba. He returned in less than a year later and was defeated in 1821 at the Battle of Waterloo. He died in 1821 under the British supervision on the island of Saint Helena. The autopsy revealed that stomach cancer was the cause of his death, but scientists in the 1950s concluded that it was due to arsenic poisoning. 10 D. Hitler and WWII World War II was a global military conflict among participating nations including the great powers, organized into two opposing alliances called the Allied Forces and the Axis Forces. Over 100 million military forces were involved in the war which was considered the most widespread one in history. The major participants succumbed to the state of total war and put their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the disposal of the war efforts, giving no significant distinction between military and civilian resources. It was considered the deadliest conflict in the history of the human race with over 70 million people killed, majority of whom were civilians.11 The war generally started in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland followed by its subsequent declaration of war against France, United Kingdom, and the British Dominions. 12 However, several belligerents joined the war following other events that ensued before or after this date, such as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the British and Dutch colonies in South East Asia. When the war was ended, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the leading superpowers who later engaged in a Cold War.13 Hitler’s objectives in WWII were motivated by his experiences at Vienna, WWI, the Munich Putsch, and in prison which led him to dream of building a vast German Empire that sprawled in the whole of Europe, particularly across the Central and Eastern region. Only through a war or conquest against the Soviet Union could Lebensraum be obtained, a fact demanded by German security and required by Hitler’s racial ideology, making war an essential means.14 When obtaining Austria, Hitler used the threat of force which also made him obtain Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia. Ethnic Germans comprising more than three-quarters of the Sudetenland population were encouraged by the Nazis to denounce the Czech Republic to which they heeded. Hitler devised a propaganda machine that accused the Czech government of hideous crimes and ordered his generals to plan an invasion of the country. The Munich Pact was signed which contains an agreement that the German troops will replace all Czech troops in the Sudetenland, allowing Hitler to annihilate the independent existence of Czechoslovakia, whose independence came to an end in 1939.15 After Czechoslovakia’s invasion, Hitler contemplated on invading Poland. He demanded that Poland return to Germany the Polish port town of Danzig which the Polish refused since it was vital to their economy. On Aug. 23, 1939, the Nazi-Soviet Pact of non-aggression was signed, calling for the partition of Poland between Germany and Russia. The pact served as the Russian basis to invade Poland, along with the Germans whose troops marched into Poland on September 1, 1939. The Phony War was how the period of six months following the fall of Poland was called.16 France fell under the hands of the Germans by 1940s and Hitler expected that Britain will offer peace. However, the British rejected any overtures in which Hitler ordered his Luftwaffe to launch massive air strikes against Britain, leading to an event in history called Battle of Britain, which was waged for five months. On September 15, 60 German aircrafts were shot down by British RAF, forcing Hitler to postpone his invasion of Britain. British morale never broke during the Blitz even when the Germans went on with their night time attacks on English cities and towns. 17 By 1942, Nazi Germany has virtually ruled over entire Europe. This was done through annexation of territories, German military authority, and collaboration with the Nazis, such as France’s example. Hitler superimposed a New Order in this vast empire by expropriating and exploiting every conquered country. Gold, art, machinery, and food supplies were looted and taken back to Germany. The Nazis confiscated some foreign factories and demanded some to be produced. There were 7 million people from the occupied territories who were enslaved and transported to Germany where they worked in forced labor camps ruled by terror and fear. 18 Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in 1945 made the United States leave its isolationist position and entered the war. Hitler attacked Russia which cost Germany almost 300,000 soldiers who died in the battle of Stalingrad and another 130, 000 who were taken as prisoners. In 1943, the Allied forces led by the United States liberated Italy, followed by France in 1944. They conducted bombings on German cities. Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945 and a demoralized Germany surrendered unconditionally one week later.19 II. The European Union The European Union was established in 1993 by the Treaty of Maastricht based on the pre-existing European Economic Community. The organisation is basically a political and economic union comprising 27 member states in Europe.20 It consists of approximately 500 million citizens and combines an estimated 30 per cent share of the world’s gross domestic product. The European Union evolved from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established in 1951. The ECSC was an international organisation that comprised six nations aiming to unify Western Europe during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The ECSC paved way to the creation of European democracy and the modern-day development of the EU. It was the first organisation ever to base its existence and operations on the principles of supranationalism.21 The ECSC started as a proposal in 1950 by a French foreign minister whose principal goal was to prevent further war between Germany and France. It was formally established by the Treaty of Paris in 1951, signed by France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Netherlands. The ECSC was particularly to create a common market for coal and steel; thus its name. The High Authority governed the organisation, which was checked by bodies representing governments as well as MPs and an independent judiciary.22 At present, a standardized system of laws applies in all member states allowing the European Union to develop a single market. This guarantees the freedom of movement of not only of people but also of goods, services, and capital along the region. Some of the policies which the Union maintains include common trade policies, agricultural and fisheries policies, and a regional development policy. The euro was adopted by 15 member states, replacing their previous currencies. The Union plays a key role in foreign policy in which it represents its members in the World Trade Organisation (WTO) as well as at in G Summit and the United Nations. There are 21 member states that are currently NATO members as well. The Union has as strong influence in justice and home affairs including the abolition of passport control which was implemented through the Schengen Agreement. 23 A hybrid system of supranationalism and intergovernmentalism govern the operation of the EU. Some of its important institutions are the European Commission, the European Parliament, the European Council, and the Council of the European Union, to name a few.24 Europe Tomorrow: Prospects for the Future With the European Union taking a lead in the regional governance of Europe which helps some of its prominent states to further their economic dominance, it is seen the region shall continue to merge towards achievement of a balanced economic condition. With the weakening status of the dollar, there is a potential that the euro will take over as the international currency for international transactions. EU business will remain attached to the changing and growing market trends in the globalised economy. The region shall continue to promote democracy as the ideal form of government as well as liberalization policies for smoother flow of economic goods. It shall continue to look at prospects that aim to solve potential economic recession brought about by production surpluses. 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