Correlation Between Paramount Decrees in 1948 and the Boom of Art Houses in 1950s - Research Paper Example

The study on the correlation between Paramount Decrees in 1948 and the boom of art houses in 1950s Introduction This paper delineates the correlation between Paramount Decrees in 1948 and the boom of art-houses in 1950s. In the early on, it describes the background of the art-houses, their emergence, their concepts, and their hold over a particular audience, which, eventually, led to boom in the 1950s. Secondly, it discusses the reasons behind the tremendous boom so far, describing about the significance of the art-houses, and the reasons for audience inclining towards it. Art-films are generally considered as low-budget films from the European countries, however, it does not mean that Hollywood films are no less. The diversity of Hollywood cinema drastically decreased after the Paramount Decree, moving away from the low-budget films to fewer ones with high budgets. As a result, it is demonstrated further, that the audiences of these low-budget films left the Hollywood cinema, rather than transforming their tastes suddenly to art films. The main argument of this study states that the decline in the production of low-budget movies served as the main reason for the growth of art-houses in the 1950s. Background: the Art Theatres in 1950s The art film theatre phenomenon became commercially feasible in the late 1940s. Art houses featured overseas films, documentaries, self-regulating productions and classic re-releases, chiefly Hollywood. These theatres happened to be small, showed only single feature films, accommodated to mature audiences, and more likely, preferred selling coffee rather than popcorn and other eatables. Most of the main-stream movie theatres lacked at business compared to the Art houses which held films over for long runs comparatively. In addition, along with their entrance to major cities and college towns, the art theatres gained popularity and prevalence amongst masses throughout the 1950s. In accordance to Gomery views, the number of art theatres incremented from 250 to 1,500 between 1950 and 1952, though not all of them were showing art films exclusively (Gomery, 2002). Studies revealed that the patrons of art houses were older, well-educated and more up scale in comparison to the majority audiences (Dallas et al., 1953). They were ardent film-goers who efficaciously utilized other cultural products were more likely to be influenced by the reviews and word of mouth rather than any sort of publicizing or advertising. The supposed search for high quality films was offered for a variety of motives for the art film-goers than those being made by main-stream Hollywood studios. With the commencement of World War II, an interest in more crucial and socially critical appearance opened up for entertainment as well as an increased curiosity about the foreign cultures and conventions rose in the masses. Moreover, with television sets becoming popular in the home and focusing on family fare, motion pictures attempted to put forward to the adult audiences something different, mature, which would motivate them to depart their homes (Maltby, 2003). There are several other factors which led the exhibitors to explore outside the Hollywood Studio system for film products. The ruling that vertical integration of the Hollywood studios violated anti-trust laws evoked the studios to divorce production and distribution from the exhibition (The Yale Law Journal, 1965). With such a transformation, more and more theatres became self-regulating, restraining the control that the main-stream studios practiced over exhibition by way of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). Self-regulating productions were successful in these aspects because they had the flexibility to locate interesting themes, popular stars and enough finance from the studios which was rather a hit or miss effort with higher rate of menace (Robins, 1933: 103-118). Although, in the year 1942, the MPAA eradicated fines and penalties against theatres which screened movies without Production Code seals, the member companies assured to keep up with their theatres the moral and policy standards as implicated in the Production Code accompanying rules (Inglis, 1947). Even as late as 1960, most of the theatres still needed in the films they exhibited to possess the production Code Seal of approval, in that period, there were only two films which had received wise distribution without the seal, they were The Moon is Blue and The Man with the Golden Arm (Zinsser, 1960). Nonetheless, regardless of the general trend for sustain the significance of the Production Code seal for exhibition, the Paramount decision, but supporting independent over studio-regulated exhibition, increased the likelihood of exhibiting films which strayed from the Production Code’s moral and policy standards. There were many other industrial factors which contributed to the rise of art film theatres. Amidst the years 1946 and 1956, the production of studio Hollywood films decremented over 28 per cent while the introduction of foreign films rose 132 percent (Wilinsky, 2001). The theatres which were struggling to maintain their screens filled, often turned to independently produced Hollywood films, documentaries as well as foreign films so as to keep their theatres in a running condition. Decremented production within the main-stream studios had many factors behind. The procedure of divorcement and impending divorcement referred to the failure of further advantage of the studios from their cash cows, which suggests that the theatres had no longer facilitated the financial support for film production. As a result, production was required to be scaled back in order to be profitable in and of itself. The prohibition of block booking and blind bidding in the 1940s was another factor which resulted in decreased production (Hanssen, 2000). In view of the fact that the studios could no longer rely on monopolistic practices in order to secure the rental of all their films, despite the quality, the main-stream film producers scaled back production in order to focus on A-grade pictures with adequate attraction to guarantee rentals. This decrease in the production also led to a seller’s market, driving up the rental prices for Hollywood films often beyond the means of many small and self-regulating theatres. Simultaneously, when the Unites States film studious decreased production, the introduction of foreign pictures began to take pace. With the utilization of the locked up funds in other nations following the war, the studios acquired the American rights to foreign films and documentaries (Draper, 1990). Even though weakened by the Paramount decision and the increased units of independent exhibitors, the Production Code administration incessantly kept a scrutiny on the film industry, for the fact of requirement of studio films to meet certain moral standards in order to get a seal of authorization (Wilinsky, 1996). Self-regulating and overseas pictures which did not seek the Paramount Code Administration authorization often found themselves the aims of the local controlling boards. Films were hence, licensed by the State and city censorship boards for public exhibition. With the closing stages of the 1940s, the interested parties thrust foreign films which accounted for almost 80 per cent of the art-house fare into the centre of the discussion regarding the morality of motion pictures (Wilinsky, 1996). At this point of time, the consideration was mostly focused on the Italian non-realistic films, for the reason of the critical and popular prosperity of these films and meticulously because of their claims to actuality or realism. This referred to their attempts to capture and depict the actual and real world rather than a world which corresponded with an initial approval of the production code. These Italian pictures usually did not acquire the MPAA seal of authorization and as a result to this, most of the theatres denied to display them, restricting their display to the art houses (Wilinsky, 1996). In the context of the discussion over the legitimacy of film as an appearance of the cultural notion that the comprehension of art-theatres established in to two opposing view-points, that the films became seen as not only a serious art form, but also as a means of dealing with mature themes. The film audiences delineated an interest in intellectual as well as serious themes. The increasing popularity of university film programs and 16 mm film societies justified the study of films, and the decision of some universities to make their curriculum inclusive of film-making as well as film-appreciation reflected and encouraged the growing interest in the serious consideration of pictures. Certain groups did not have a stake in the incrementing the cultural capital of these theatres and their films, although they consciously defined their interests in bequeathing art houses with an appearance of pride. Critics, art film exhibitors, and film-makers benefited from the increase in pride and prestige afforded to the art films and theatres. As a result, the critics increased the scope of their intellectual influence. The prosperity of the art theatre as a flip-mode of display, prompted the assistance of some critics who could avail the advantages from the development of an audience which embraced art and considered films critically. By shoring up the conception of art theatres as sites of cultural enlightenment, the art film exhibitors influenced the upper-class and intellect audiences, thereby, keeping aside certain forms of censorship. These exhibitors encouraged the cultural and intellectual image by facilitating not only even more adult pictures, but also cosmopolitan vicinity anticipated to tempt the lost ‘adult’ audiences back to the urban theatres. Publicizing their theatres after locations of an intellectual tradition, exhibitors appealed to the public’s attempt to differentiate themselves from mass audiences and supposedly passive viewers (Wilinsky, 1996). Usually, small-scale theatres and art-houses provided those in the viewers a sense of exclusivity. Many of the art-houses also made use of the mailing lists to supplement the sense of present audience being cognizant and published news-letters which lent an intellectual gesture to the culture of art-houses. Many of the art houses further encouraged the serious image of their programs by denying admission to children, there by, charging the highest admission price of movie theatres at the time, as a result, associating these pictures as a genuine high-class piece of work. However, some remarks delineate that the film fashions and themes which were linked to the increased cultural capital of cinema raised discussions about the structure and output of the US film industry. It was believed that the brining of a new producer, a new product and a new system of tastes in to the market at a given point of time, is the provocation of the whole set of producers, products and systems of tastes in to the past. The rise of 1950s art theatres provoked an opposite reaction within the critical establishment, the film industry and local censoring groups (Wilinsky, 1996). These groups attempted to weaken the links of art films with high culture by delineating them as films which exploit sex in order to make money, thereby, interpreting the economic side of the art film industry. Nonetheless, the success of many foreign pictures at a time when most of the film industry was losing its audience led these groups to suggest that sexual content helped make a film. On the other hand, successful films such as the Open City, which were displayed in main-stream theatres and exploitation as well as art theatres were objects of more sensationalized publicity on the part of these non-art film theatres (Wilinsky, 1996). Lucidly, the advertisements of art films and art theatres require further analysis in order to clarify the role of sex in the publicity of these films and the exhibitor’s part in this sort of promotion. The controversies related to the films had financial benefits for those involved in them. The discourse surrounding art houses and their film suggested that censorship appeared most irrelevant and unnecessary. With following the refusal to the production code administration to grant some films a seal of authorization, many news papers as well as periodicals adhered together to censure the censorship of art. In other words, the MPAA had made itself irrelevant. The press and periodicals tended to side with the artists, criticizing the church’s attempt to control the films exhibited to ‘adults only, in vicinity which helped in expanding the cultural horizons of the US public. Nonetheless, the need to consult about the cultural capital of art films and the economic capital required to sustain a commercial film industry within the shifting tastes of cultures of this era resulted in incongruous and conflicting public expression about the artistic legitimacy of films. The double-faceted discussion surrounding the art-houses in the 1950s as being sites of high-profiles as well as places to see more sexually explicit films worked to expose a rupture within the recent perceptions of motion pictures. The contradictions which resulted from these discourses led to the questioning of the prominent ideologies about the censorship of films, art and entertainment. These breaks certifiably did not get sorted out within the time period of neo-realism, however, they developed throughout the 1950s. The Re-consideration: the Reasons for the Boom With the advent of 1940s, the boom in mass-communication research appeared to be continuing unabated in to its second decade. Trade publications and scholarly journals alike delineated this upsurge of interest in the assembly of sensible factuality and figures regarding the various mass-media. Art theatres are often few in numbers and seem to be found only in the largest cities, which are now straggled throughout the United States in college towns and medium sized cities as well as in major citizenry centers. They appear to be here to stay as a significant part of the country’s business in motion-picture. Intrigued by questions like who attends the art-houses and the differences related to them, significance of the stars as attraction in the movies, and the likes and dislikes in the movies, the answers follow the study of composition, movie-going habits, and preferences of an art theatre audience. The types of motion pictures liked and disliked by the audience are recognized in the way that the open-ended methodology of the study produces some over-lapping categories. For the audience, it appears that serious drama is the single class of picture most appreciated by the art-house patrons. Musical comedy was second on the list. These explorations suggest that art-house audiences like their sensational emotional fare in a sober vein, rather than a frivolous one to a greater limit than the movie-watching citizenry at large. Regarding the attitudes of art-house patrons over foreign films, they actually prefer watching them too. The regular art-house patrons report a more generalized liking over foreign films in comparison to the casual customers. Moreover, there is a difference between the answer of the regular and casual viewers to the question regarding realism and technical skills which are appeals of foreign pictures. However, they are appreciated noticeably by the regular patrons than do the casuals. The appeals for the casual patrons are relatively higher in unusualness, scenery and location, and preference to English films (Smythe et. al, 1953). Overall, the art-theatre audience conforms to its stereotype by bringing in consideration the personalities of stars insignificant among the qualities of pictures best appreciated. Acting and story are mentioned five to six times as frequent as stars. Two distinct patters of taste appear within the art-house audience, which are based on attitudes of the regular as compared with the casual patrons. The individuals portray a taste characterized as adventuring on the frontiers of consumption, and they are significantly more likely to have learnt of the picture’s presence from word-to-word mouth publicity, and from posters or marquee publicity (Smythe et. al, 1953). Sociologists have paid no attention to the movies in recent years, however, some significant transformations have been taking place in the content of Hollywood films in the past decade. Until the 1950s, the movies were undoubtedly the major tack in the American entertainment. It is not possible to generalize about the films which came out of Hollywood and the many myths they recited, there were quite some which held major importance. Movies about the old fantasies are still being made, but over the past decade there has been appears a problem-film, which deals with social, sexual as well as political problems and the solutions related to it. It describes the ethical issues and dilemmas, raised both by the problem and the possible solutions to it, and eventually, ends with the hero taking appropriate action as it includes a morally difficult choice, and later on, solves the problem (Gans, 1964). The significance of this change must not be exaggerated, nonetheless, it is especially important to note that the explanation and resolution of the social problems depicted draw extensively on traditional formulae. The description of changes in American films and movie-making process has so far been purely empirical. However, there are audiences which can be divided into several taste subcultures, each of which has a somewhat discrete concept of what is good or beautiful. On the other hand, the attainment of sub-cultural diversity also requires the development of film-criticism which voices of the esthetic standards of groups. Presently, criticism is written for those cultures alone, and the rest of the citizenry is served only by the film review persons. Another significant requirement for sub-cultural diversity is the development of audience research. If the movie-makers knew about their audiences, it would eradicate some of the uncertainties under which the film industry functions. In addition to it, greater knowledge about the audience might enable the movie-makers to be less fearful regarding what the audience would accept and what pressure groups representing ticket-buyers might do on order to hurt the films at the box-office. Hollywood films may assume a more important role in American society or even as their operation as a model for social behavior continues to decrease (Gans, 1964). Movies provide information for the citizen-ship role even as they entertain. Obviously, they might offer distorted descriptions of and facile solutions to the problems with which they deal, the ending which enables the audience to move out happily of the theatre can also mislead it. Distortion of information, though, unavoidable, but may also be conscious and this must either be avoided, or identified by an explicit statement of the film’s and the film-maker’s values. The movies can do relatively little in order to change the fundamental ideas, however, the magic of the medium is such that it can encourage the audience to think and question their preconceptions as they sit in the theater, temporarily isolated from society. This is the only reason that the rise of the problem-films is a desirable development. Paramount Decrees: the Impact over the Art Cinema Paramount Consent Decrees were issued in 1948 following the violation of anti trust law by big production companies in the motion picture industry. The verdict resulted in unprecedented changes to the organization and continuity of American films. The decrees imposed restrictions on the trade practices of film industry and required the divorcement of theatres from distributors. These decisions resulted in a radical change to the distribution of motion pictures. A new type of competition evolved in the entertainment industry. The worst hit was the production companies and exhibitors with the decrease in the production of the b-movies and the resultant decrease in audience turnout (Conant 1981). Paramount consent decree of 1948 took away the right to enter into long term contractual agreement with actors, theatres and movie directors to produce and distribute movies (Rhines 1996). The motion picture industry has been the subject of legal action throughout the entire epoch of its development as a major American Industry (Whitman, 1938). Arriving to the entire growth of the advent of the talking picture, the industry developed some abuses which resulted in a full scale attack on it in 1938. With successive attacks on the industry, in 1946, the statutory court declared the patterns of distribution to be in restraint of competition. As a result, eventually, a decree was entered in order to regulate the industry and eradicate offensive practices in motion picture distribution (Monthly Catalog, 1946). Since, independent producers are the groups who were mostly injured by the ambition of the majors to control the entire industry through the exhibition markets before the Paramount decision, many treble-damage actions by them could be expected. Actions may have been filed and settled and were therefore, unreported. There are only two reported decisions of actions by independents against one or more of the major defendants that went to trial, and one preceding suit was lost (Conant, 1981). In 1948, Paramount Decree impacted the foundation of American film industry for the reason that it required studios in order to divest from theatre chains and affiliated marketing practice which had a monopolistic approach. Theatre chain was a system which was followed by big production houses so as to ensure the exhibition of movies, although, studios implemented alternative methods to maintain the regulation over film exhibition, the 1948 Paramount Decree disintegrated the studio method of production which was in vogue in the United States since the late 1910s. It should be noted that Paramount Decree was the formal indication of the paradigm shift to independent production which gained momentum during the American pictures’ post-studio period. The Paramount Decree led to the minimum involvement of the Hollywood companies in the movies produced by ex-studios as they were free from their straight approach in the film production system. The place of main stream Hollywood cinema was then taken over by the independent production studios. Although, the corporate productions rendered physical assistance for their studios, their participation gradually decreased and resulted in the production of lesser films. This change of the American Cinema was complete when United Artists which provided marketing and studio support for independent productions emerged with a dominating appearance in terms of profit and revenue (Tzioumakis, 2006). Moreover, the involvement of money and the scarcity of movies post the Paramount decree signified the film industry to be clearly an affair of money business (Paletz et. al, 1966). In this way, the American film industry experienced severe economic hazards after the Paramount decrees. The crisis lasted for more than twenty years as theatres were shut down, studios were restricted and audience turn-out decreased (Mann, 2008). Many major production companies did not sign any entertainer or actor for six consecutive months which led to widespread unemployment in the American film industry (Mayer, 1948). However, with time passing by, the Paramount Decree created a new enthusiasm amongst exhibitors to construct new theatres which were totally packed with the national exhibition schemes and are independent of the out-dated entities. It held major productions guilty of infringing Sherman Antitrust Act (Wilinsky, 1996). Program booking was the early distribution method of the Paramount. Star booking was highly priced than the program booking system, but this was encouraged by the exhibitors since the movies were marketable (Quinn, 1999). On the other hand, the exhibitors were affected as well by the inadequate supply of movies for the reason that they had to spend a long time to purchase a movie and then run it in the theatre (Hanssen, 2000: 395-426). The main company then divorced the major production entities, and simultaneously, there were independent exhibitors who could acquire the sympathy of the Justice Department. These facilities were not actually equipped as per the requirement or were innovative and new. The Paramount Decree led to the phenomenon of competitive bidding as well. However, it was unsuccessful in competitive bidding, and the exhibitors also had to face the brunt by displaying poor quality films for a higher rent and there was a demand for higher price from the distributors for good films (Kennedy and Klein, 1983). The court construed to it as a remedy to replace the block-cooking system which comprised of illegal licensing procedures. The norms of competitive bidding required each feature exhibited in a competitive arena so as to be available to all the exhibitors rather than allowing distributors controlled exhibitors to exhibit a film. Art houses served as venues to exhibit alternative movies and created an innovative interest in the audience. Discussions The major’s choice to focus on fewer films with higher budget after the decrees needs to be interpreted from industrial point of view, to understand the impact of the decrees to the market of low-budget films. Porter introduced the term ‘competitive advantage (C.A.)’ stating that in the long run, firms succeed relative to their competitors if they possess sustainable competitive advantage (Porter, 1990). According to his C.A. theory, the basic strategy of the firm is to focus on either 1) ‘cost leadership’, the ability to design, produce and market a comparable product more efficiently, literally more cheaply, than its competitors, or 2) ‘differentiation’, the ability to provide unique and superior value to the buyer in terms of product quality, special features or after-sales service. Porter then warned that the firm would be ‘stuck in the middle’ if it tried simultaneously to pursue the both strategies, which simply means that then the product can neither compete with its differentiated features in Harrods department store in London, nor with its price in cheap local markets in suburban towns. The majors in Hollywood appear to have followed Porter’s strategic doctrine, choosing the ‘differentiation’ as their main strategy and abandoning the cheaply-made products, low-budget films. Here, it is critical to note that ‘the low-budget films’ is not a synonym of B-movies but includes them together with other low-budget A-movies (Hayward, 1993). Therefore, the majors did not just move away from B-movies’ market, but also and more importantly from the market of the general low-budget films that could have been compatible with the later, so-called, ‘art films’ in the art houses. Considering the fact that the majority films in the art houses are low-budget films, regardless of the country of its origin, it is clear that the major’s second divorcement from the low-budget market, if the first was from theatres, led to the sudden abolition of ‘the entry barrier’ to the low-budget market for the ‘art films’. Therefore, this raises a question of whether the boom of art houses would have been still possible without the majors leaving the low-budget market after the decrees. The statement that one of the main reasons for the boom of the art houses was the change of audience’s taste to the films of artistic quality, also appears to contain 2 major logical flaws. If the films in the art houses could be regarded as the substitute products for the major’s low-budget films as briefly discussed in the previous paragraph from the industrial point of view, then it can be said that in the art houses, the audiences regained their tastes, which was temporally lost after major’s second divorcement, rather suddenly creating new tastes for the films. The fact that major’s production of documentaries or B-movies after the decrees and these films were easily found in the art houses later in 1950’s, evidences this view. In addition, the exhibitors who lost their financial support from the majors after the decrees often chose distributors of such low-budget films simply because these films were cheap to buy, not because they searched for the change of audiences’ tastes. The second flaw from the statement would its assumption that films in the art houses features higher artistic quality. According to Hayward, grammatically, the term ‘art film’, which is frequently used with ‘art cinema’ or ‘art houses’, is not a common noun but a ‘proper noun’ which was originated in certain period to indicate a certain type(s) of films, mostly experimental European films such as French New Wave and German Cinema, rather than meaning that this is an art film while others are not (Hayward, 1996). In aesthetic theory, realists such as Andre Bazin believed that film/photography is also an art itself without trying to add any artificial element to it to make it an art (Bazin, 1967). Indeed, such terms like art painting, art literature and art music do not practically exist in the world of art. Therefore, it would not be appropriate, at an academic level at least, to categorize films into commercial films and art films as all films can be seen as an art form at the first place whether they was commercially exploited or not. In addition, it was also shown that there were frequently sexually-exploited films in the art houses in 1950s, which were certainly called an ‘art film’. 5. Conclusion Within the limitations of the products and market anatomies, the Paramount decrees had profound effects on the industry. Before the decrees, many major firms regulated the industry by virtue of their control on the first-run theatres and the system of reciprocity in access to each other’s theatres administered by their illegal cartel. However, prior to the decrees, a much free market was created as the Paramount defendants lost control over the motion-picture production. In the freer market, the independent producers, proved to be the paramount production unit. Moreover, the reduction in the production of b-movies by major Hollywood productions resulted in the book of art houses. The production of b-movies was affected due to the transformation in the distribution policies post the Paramount Decrees, and therefore, self-regulating productions took the place of Hollywood main-stream in order to produce low-budget movies who allocated the opportunities to exhibit them in the art-houses which maintained a variety of exhibition through a mixture of independently produced movies, imported films as well as documentaries which were full of enthusiasm to the audience of all times. The new and innovative Hollywood approach is the film-by film process where all the required factors like actors, sets, exhibitors and distributors were decided separately (Horwath et. al, 2003: 53). However, the b-movies evolved from the requirement for double features during the depression period. With the transformation in the American film industry, the major production stopped producing b-movies which formed the major part of the market. the classical style of b-movies thus, made way for more thrilling and effective contents which attracted young audiences (Cornea, 2007: 31). As a result, it can be argued that the decline in the production of b-movies served as the chief reason for the growth of art houses in the 1950s. The requirement of negotiating the cultural capital of art films and the economic capital required to maintain a commercial film industry within the shifting taste of cultures has resulted in the contradictory and conflicting public discussion about the artistic legitimacy of pictures. The films in the art-cinema can be considered as low-budgeted films, since, they took over the empty market with their low-budgets when the main-stream cinema lost control over audiences. The main-stream producers did not make low-budget films, which caused the decrease of the diversity of US films, thereby, losing the audiences of the low-budget films which eventually, resume the films in the art cinema. Work Cited Page 1. Bazin, Andre. What is Cinema? Vol.1. Hugh Gray, trans. Berkeley and Los Angeles, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. 2. Conant, M. The Paramount Decrees Reconsidered. Law and Contemporary Problems, 1981. Vol. 44, No. 4, Current Issues in Entertainment and Sports Law. Pp. 79-107. [27/11/2008] . 3. Cornea, C. Science Fiction Cinema: Between Fantasy and Reality Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. 4. Draper, Ellen. Controversy Has Probably De- stroyed Forever the Context: The Miracle and Movie Censorship in America in the Fifties. The Velvet Light Trap 25: Spring, 1990. Pp. 76. 5. Faber, Ronald J. Art Films in the Suburbs: A Comparison of Poplar and Art Film Audiences. Current Re- search in Film vol.4, edited by Bruce A. 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