The Normandy landings Operation Overlord - Essay Example

Describe in detail the landings of Normandy, 6th June 1944. The Normandy landings on D-Day, 6th June 1944, has become one of the most infamous and significant day in history. This is partly due to the complexity and difficulty of the operation that involved a large Allied army, predominantly made up of British, American and Canadian soldiers, crossing the English Channel with the intention of invading and occupying the coast of Nazi-occupied France. Despite the eventual victory, the actual day proved to be highly problematic and, at moments, almost disastrous for the Allies. It is intriguing to discuss the painstaking planning of the operation, designed by Allied Expeditionary Force Supreme Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower, and to attempt to identify the ways in which the events of the day differed and contrasted with the Commander’s strategies. Moreover, my purpose in what follows is to discuss the landings of the 82nd and 101st airborne troops and the problems they encountered at each of the five beaches along the Normandy coast, covering the actions of the rangers at Pointe Du Hoc. Before investigating the proceedings of the Normandy landings, it is interesting to review the objectives of the Allied invasion, codenamed Operation Overlord, which was laid out by Eisenhower. The main aim of the operation was, of course, to exploit German weakness, and to invade and destroy Hitler’s armed forces. However, achieving such goals meant extensive planning and cunning schemes, aimed at diverting the attention of the German army. Indeed, it was clear that the element of surprise had been a crucial part of Eisenhower’s strategic decision. According to Mildred Berman, several deception schemes took place; ‘one involved a fictitious army in Edinburgh poised for an apparent invasion of Norway,’ and another larger deception plan ‘was set up in the Dover port area, with dummy tanks and a huge false dock.’1 These ruses set up by the Allies were all with the intention of keeping Germany uncertain as to the location of the major invasion point. Planning this area of attack was crucial for Eisenhower and the Allies, who had to strategically avoid the Atlantic Wall, a German construction of fortifications and mines that stretched along the western coast of France. After learning minute details of the terrain of northern France, it was decided that the Normandy coast would be the location for the breakout into the interior of France, because it was an unexpected and less-defended area, where airborne troops could land and ground forces could arrive from the Channel, and build-up resources for the attack. Indeed, in his own report on his experiences of World War II, Eisenhower states that the main strategy of the ground campaign was to land both the amphibious and airborne forces on the Normandy coast, ‘between Le Havre and the Cotentin Peninsula… to drive along the lines of the Loire and the Seine Rivers into the heart of France, destroying the German strength.’2 To launch this assault, a short air-bombardment of the beach defenses was planned. Eisenhower had been struggling for air supremacy since the beginning of the war, and consequently by the spring of 1944, a new directive was added aimed at subjugating the enemy air force. In theory, this would prevent the Germans from bringing their full strength to the area of bombardment. However, the degree to which Eisenhower’s strategies can be deemed effective is yet to be examined when discussing the actual events of the day. The ingeniously planned Operation Overlord began on D-Day, 6th June 1944, but was almost entirely ruined by something unexpected: the weather. A fierce storm in the English Channel had already forced postponement of plans to invade on the 5th June, but Eisenhower gave the command to proceed the next day after weather reports indicated favourable conditions. Regardless of the Allied plan, it was apparent was that the success or failure of the grand operation would be controlled by a combination of elements; ‘the moon and its effect on the tides, sea swells, breaking surf, beach surfaces, and visibility in the air and on the ground.’3 Indeed, as will be noted later, these factors certainly effected the intense invasion of the five beaches along the coast. Nevertheless, for the moment, it seemed that the Allies were fortunate, for at dawn the cloudy air cleared from the Channel giving the 23,000 initial-assault paratroopers the opportunity to land behind enemy lines. A decision was made to begin to drop US soldiers from the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions even before dawn, during the night, thus by the end of the day, the number of paratroopers totalled to approximately 130,000. Huge naval forces, including 6939 vessels, arrived on the five codenamed beaches; the American forces landed on Utah and Omaha Beach, and the British and Canadian forces at Gold, Juno and Sword.4 Coinciding with Eisenhower’s plans, Allied bombardment of the area had also already begun at midnight in order to prepare the troops for the assault. For Eisenhower himself, this air and naval bombardment provided invaluable assistance in securing the success of their landings, not only due to the fact that most of the wire entanglements were broken down and smoke shells blinded the German defenders, but because ‘the enemys communications network and his radar system were thrown into complete confusion.’5 This was crucial, for it kept the enemy in a state of complete ignorance as to the extent of the assault. Nevertheless, there were other factors beyond Eisenhower’s strategic control that placed Germany in a weaker position. As Gary R. Hess states, by D-Day the German ‘naval and air support was no match for that of the Allies’, their ground forces were widely dispersed and ‘included weaker units that the Germans had hastily pressed into service.’6 Whether it was due to the tactics of Eisenhower or not, the weakening of German defenses contributed immensely to the successful invasion of Normandy and led the Allied troops to secure the five beaches by the end of the day. Despite this, it cannot be forgotten that the entire operation was far from an easy achievement. As shall be noted, the problems encountered at the beaches, particularly at Omaha, were near-disastrous. Although the cloudy skies had cleared at dawn for the air force, it was evident that the weather was going to be a major set-back for the ground forces arriving from the Channel. The high seas added enormously to the troop’s difficulty getting ashore, and they were often swept off their feet and drowned, wading through waist-deep water in attempt to penetrate Hitler’s defense. It wasn’t long before patches of clouds began to trouble the aircraft who, according to Eisenhower’s reports, now had to take ‘extra safety precautions to avoid hitting our own troops, with the result that their bombs sometimes fell too far inland, especially at Omaha beach.’7 Consequently, at this American landing beach, the enemy’s defense remained intact, and the invaders had to advance up the beach under the heavy fire of the Germans, who were positioned on a cliff along the sea-wall. The soldiers found running away from the firing squad impossible due to ‘the weight of their waterlogged uniforms, equipment and wet sand.’8 It is not surprising, therefore, that the major cause of death at Omaha Beach was drowning, and in total, 2,400 were either killed or wounded.9 The invasion of Utah, the other American landing beach, resulted in fewer casualties then Omaha. However, the 2m high waves caused the soldiers to struggle in their small boats and the strong winds blew the first airborne troops to land 2km south of their target. In fact, it was the 82nd Airborne Division who had the worst drop in the entire operation; they were assigned to the zones west of the Merderet but they were scattered far too widely, and 272 were either killed or wounded as a result. It proved to be a gruelling first few hours for the 101st Airborne troops also, 1,500 of whom were either killed or captured, losing 60% of their equipment.10 Regardless, the troops achieved their primary objectives, and by the end of the day the French village Sainte-Mère-Église was liberated and Utah Beach was secured. Casualties continued to be high for the British and Canadian troops invading the remaining three beaches, but despite the fatalities, they also still managed to push their way inland and secure their positions: at Juno Beach the Canadians joined with the British troops from Gold Beach, invading nearby towns of Bernières and Saint-Aubin; and finally, after a series of naval bombardments that weakened German positions, the soldiers at Sword Beach were successful in linking up with the airborne units. Another significant scene for the US landing forces was at Pointe Du Hoc, situated between Utah and Omaha Beach. It was a vertical cliff nearly 100 metres high, with German defenses on the outermost edges. Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel James Earl Rudder, the rangers were, according to Ambrose, ‘elite troops specially trained and especially brave … who scaled the cliffs using [rope and] the grappling hook.’11 Indeed, climbing this steep cliff was a huge challenge for the rangers, who had to avoid dropping grenades and gun fire from German defenders whilst carrying equipment on their backs. The reason why Pointe Du Hoc is considered one of the premier World War II battlefields is due to the fact that it was bombarded with thousands of tons of high explosives, largely because the Allied attack had begun weeks before D-Day. Consequently, by the 6th June, the top of the cliff was devastated, causing huge chunks of the soil to tumble down, making the rocks slippery and the ascent almost impossible. Similar to the troops landing at the five beaches, although the rangers at Pointe Du Hoc took heavy casualties, remarkably they were the first American forces on D-Day to accomplish their mission. It is fair to say that the Allied forces accomplished the operation and secured footholds on the landing sites, despite the overwhelming fatalities and injuries, due to the immense number of soldiers and strong support from air and sea. The unsettled weather certainly attributed to the problems of the Allies, but it also partly led to the element of surprise, a crucial part of Eisenhower’s tactical plan. Witnessing the weather, the Germans decided that crossing the Channel would be impossible, and that various landing zones would be impassable, thus some of their defenses were not as strong. Eisenhower certainly achieved his aim for supremacy over the German air force, but this success came at cost; the total Allied casualties on D-Day were estimated at 10,000 including 2,500 dead. The events on 6th June 1944 are still significant today because it was the biggest amphibious invasion in history and the largest use of airborne troops up to that time. Perhaps even more remarkable, however, were the extraordinary experiences of the soldiers, who survived, fought and struggled, battling horrendous weather, machine-gun fire, shells and grenades, and later lived to tell their story. Maps Below are two maps. The first map shows the five beaches where the U.S., British and Canadian forces landed, and the position of Pointe Du Hoc. The second map illustrates where the 101st and 82nd U.S. Airborne Divisions landed. Selected Bibliography Ambrose, Stephen E. Americans at War. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1997. The Victors: Eisenhower and His Boys: The Men of World War II, 1st ed. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998. Berman, Mildred. "D-Day and Geography." The Geographical Review 84, no. 4 (1994): 469+. Database on-line. Available from Questia, http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001712028. Internet. Accessed 13 November 2008. Eisenhower, Dwight D. The Complete Report by the Supreme Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, on the War in Europe from the Day of Invasion to the Day of Victory. New York: Arco Publishing, 1946. Hess, Gary R. The United States at War, 1941-1945. 2nd ed. Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2000. Warren, Dr John C. Airborne Operations in World War II, European Theatre . Air University, Maxwell AFB: US Air Force Historical Research Agency, 1956. Read More