The Impact of the Renaissance in England - Term Paper Example

The Impact of the Renaissance in England Introduction The Renaissance as it is commonly talked about occurred in Italy originally, but as it expanded to other cultured centers of the world it continued to have profound effects. Regardless of location, the Renaissance was a time of tremendous change and growth. The long-dusty ideas of the past, grounded in tradition and defying attempts at progressive thought, were being shaken out, dusted off examined and, in many cases, thrown out with the rest of the garbage. The great societal shifts that were taking place during this period in history saw a tremendous shift in the economic base from one based upon agriculture and its products to one based on the town market and produced consumer goods. It was also a time when a shift was started in the long-held class systems from that of feudal organization made up of the traditionally wealthy and the barely recognized desperately poor to one consisting of a greater stratification of wealth and prestige, in which social mobility was possible with little more than a ready mind and a willingness to make the attempt. According to Stephen Greenblatt (1997), “This is a world in which outward appearance is everything and nothing, in which individuation is at once sharply etched and continually blurred, in which the victims of fate are haunted by the ghosts of the possible, in which everything is simultaneously as it must be and as it need not have been” (60). These issues are strongly addressed in the literature produced during this time period. Started in Italy as early as the early 1300s, the ideas of the Renaissance didn’t reach England until the 1500s. However, these ideas, once released, would serve to change the fabric of society from the traditional medieval concepts to something more closely approximating modern organization. Understanding the major elements of the Renaissance enables one to trace its entrance into England and some of the major changes that took place as a result. The Italian Renaissance The Renaissance, as it is discussed today, was not a simultaneous event that occurred throughout Europe all at once, but it is characterized by specific characteristics of thought. “The term ‘Renaissance’ might now be defined as a model of cultural history in which the culture of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe is represented as a repudiation of medieval values in favor of the revival of the culture of ancient Greece and Rome” (Campbell, 2004: v-vi). The word actually means “rebirth” and refers to the tremendous renewal of science and thought that occurred during this period as people rediscovered the skill and knowledge of the ancient worlds of Greece and Rome and adapted it to new discoveries and innovations. It was Italy’s re-focus on the ruins of their past glory that brought forward many of the technical developments made in portraying realistic images. Through these advances, artists such as Giotto, Masaccio, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti and Raphael were able to communicate the various ideas of the Renaissance outside of Italy, affecting civilizations everywhere through their art. Artists in Florence were able to quickly link the mathematical knowledge of the ancient Greeks and Romans to the proportional focus of their own world as a shared knowledge between artists and businessmen. “In an age of non-standard shipping units, one had to be able to calculate contents and quantities of shipments fairly rapidly” (Lemaitre & Lessing, 1993: 15). Painters used their foundational knowledge in geometry to create familiar elements in their paintings that would convey their intentions to the greatest possible audience. “In the same way that a painter could reduce the human form or settings to a play of geometrical figures, so could the merchant simplify all things to geometrical configurations” (Lemaitre & Lessing, 1993: 15). By melding mathematics and artistic expression, artists discovered how to provide their figures with a new impression of weight and volume that had not been previously achieved. This new ability to provide realism in a painting and other written expression led to even greater explorations into how the world manifested itself, all of which contributed to an explosion of thought, design and implementation that would change the world. One of the earliest individuals to influence Renaissance art was Giotto (1267-1337), who was known as a sculptor, architect and painter. It is through his work that artists began working on creating more realistic pictures of the human figure and to present them as more dimensional. In Giotto’s time, the technical knowledge of painting was still unknown. He was instrumental in breaking the mold of previous artists in that he infused human emotion into his paintings. “In concentrating on these essentials, he created compelling pictures of people under stress, of people caught up in crises and soul-searching decisions” (Pioch, 2002). Giotto’s greatness lay not just in the subjects he painted, but in his ability to engage the tactile imagination, his ability to involve the emotions and more natural movements in his subjects and the influence this had on artists who followed him. Masaccio (1401-1428) followed Giotto by introducing a new way of using perspective and proportion to achieve dimension, as well as using light to bring out the contours of his elements. “Masaccio was the first Renaissance artist to have grasped and interpreted man’s deepest and most mundane reality. In his painting the rigorous construction of spatial perspective, and the sapient use of chiaroscuro and color, accompany a profound human and moral content expressed in intense, tragic drama” (Masaccio, 2006). Botticelli (1445-1510) took the lessons of Masaccio and applied them to his own expressiveness in portraiture backed by landscape designs. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) again revolutionized the artistic world with his explorations in color, light, landscapes and expression. He is considered the master of the sfumato technique as well as chiaroscuro. Both of these techniques are used brilliantly in one of Leonardo’s most well-known portraits, the Mona Lisa. “His use of soft lines and colors created the illusion of movement which became the trademark of High Renaissance art” (Connor, 2006). Contributing to the High Renaissance style, Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) made a similar splash in his paintings, including free flowing movements, elegantly draped clothing and realistically rounded forms. His surviving full-size cartoon of Battle of Cascina depicts a group of nude men in various states of alarm as they are informed of an impending attack. His most famous painting is, perhaps, the work done on the Sistine Chapel. Raphael (1483-1520) further pushed the idea of naturalism with his focus on composition, balance and unity. The influences of the past masters appear in Raphael’s School of Athens, often considered one of the finest examples of the High Renaissance style. In this painting, Raphael created a balance between the horizontal space of the architecture and the movement of the figures, each of which has his own unique stance and gestures. These all seem completely natural yet the harmonious way in which each groups leads to the next continues to bring the focal point back to Plato and Aristotle at the point of convergence. The painting highlights the close connection between art, literature, science and technological mastery that developed as an integral part of Renaissance thinking. The Renaissance comes to England While the Renaissance in Italy is primarily represented through the visual arts that were produced up to the 16th century, the Renaissance in England existed for only about 100 years beginning in the 16th century and is perhaps best traced through its literature. Stephen Greenblatt (1997) begins his description of this time in history as a time when “outward appearance is everything and nothing.” He also recognizes a growing concern with the concept of individuation within the Renaissance era as it is at once sharply defined and constantly blurred. Another common concern of Renaissance literature is the idea that the victims of fate are haunted by the ghosts of the possible. These are ideas that can be easily found in William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet and Christopher Marlowe’s play Dr. Faustus, both representative of this period in history. One of the chief ways these concepts are demonstrated in Shakespeare’s play is through the portrayal of Hamlet’s madness and the steps he takes to prove the very physical presence of the ghost is valid. The dual nature of Hamlet is revealed in his disguise of insanity while retaining a sane mind. His comment “A little more kin than kind” (I, ii, 65) when speaking of his uncle prior to his knowledge of his father’s murder sounds very much like his accusation to Polonius of “You are a fishmonger” (II, ii, 174) with the only difference being one comment is made in an aside when people believe him sane and the other is said outright when he is believed insane. The Mousetrap play is also an example of the dual nature of reality. Hamlet himself describes ‘The Mousetrap’ play of Act III, scene ii as “false fire”, a blank shot meant only to give a loud report. The play is nothing if the king is not guilty of what it depicts. However, it is everything in that the king suddenly calls an end to the play. Hamlet’s struggle with individuation is most expressed in his often quoted “To be or not to be” speech while his battles with the ghosts of the possible would seem to be obvious. However, Hamlet’s struggles over whether or not to do anything about his father’s murder can also be seen as a struggle to understand the various possible consequences, a haunting of the possibilities. He is tormented by visions of Laertes, who plans to return to school; an action that Hamlet wishes he could do as well but realizes he will never do again. He is also haunted by the idea of Fortinbras, a prince who is not only empowered by his father, but who will undoubtedly seat the throne when his father dies. These same concepts can be found in Marlowe’s play. Faustus is presented initially as a man of great knowledge, wisdom and intellect. However, the entire play is about the foolish man Dr. Faustus was, his lack of intelligence regarding himself and his ignorance in determining his own actions and their consequences. Individuation is seen as Mephistopheles first appears to Faustus as he truly is, as is evident in Faustus’ instructions for him “to return, and change thy shape; / Thou art too ugly to attend on me” (i). His future appearance as a Franciscan friar, a quiet, peaceful, learned holy man, is the epitome of outward appearances being at once everything and nothing. Although Mephistopheles is a demon and is in no ways holy, he refuses to lie to Faustus regarding what his existence is like and he is otherwise peaceful. His outward appearance as a friar is everything in that it is evidence of his sincerity while it is also nothing as Dr. Faustus knows he is no savior. In each case, Faustus and Mephistopheles are seen in their individual characteristics, one as master and the other as slave to the choices of their past. Ghosts of possibilities also haunt Faustus. He desires a long life, which is what he sees in the old man who comes to plead with him to change his ways and revoke the devil, yet he is cognizant that he will gain no such life as his deal with the devil was to give him only 24 years beyond the original agreement. “Faustus goes beyond man, however, he becomes a horrible parody of man, a mechanical man who no longer has a soul, who moves in mysterious ways, constantly reminded of the change in himself, constantly questioning it and doubting his true nature” (Manley, 1969: 219). Throughout each play, it becomes clear that the world is at once what it must be and also what it shouldn’t have had to be. There is significant questioning of the proper role of man and the meaning of life. This is all the result of a changing time in which it is possible for knowledge to go beyond the strict teachings of the church and when traditional social structures are breaking down. This questioning was aggravated by the efforts of Martin Luther in Germany beginning in 1517 that brought the authority of the church into sharp question and encouraged questioning in other areas of life. Luther’s means of refuting the piratical practice of papal indulgences was to call on the people to reflect upon their need for an intermediary to God. “By attacking the issue of the indulgences, Luther was really attacking the entire theology and structure of the Church. By making salvation dependent on the individual’s faith, Luther abolished the need for sacraments as well as a clergy to administer them. For Luther, faith alone, without the necessity of good works, would bring salvation” (Kreis, 2006). This line of reasoning gained him many followers as the rich identified a means of achieving spiritual salvation without handing their estates over to the church and the poor found a means of retaining some semblance of dignity and respect regardless of what they could pay the church in their simple faith. Whereas religion before had always been about the group body of the Church and congregation, Luther introduced an individual element that would have profound implications for future generations. Again, the primary elements of individuation, dual nature and consideration of possibilities can be found in the thought process. Major changes in England as a result The English Renaissance flowered during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, who encouraged more enlightened views. “Elizabeth is often regarded as rather brilliant. She had a quick mind, was not extravagant, and recognized that her throne was not as secure as her counselors might lead her to believe. She was strong and certainly capable of making hard and difficult decisions; however, perhaps because she was a woman, she was less functionally arrogant than most of her contemporary monarchs” (Judkins, 2008). Although women didn’t achieve a great deal of independence or greater legal rights during this period, the seeds of equal rights were formed during this period. This was largely the result of individualism, which necessarily had some carry-over effect onto the female gender as it made its way through the male population. Female writers such as Elizabeth Cary (1585-1639) and Lady Mary Wroth (1587-1651) were able to gain an audience for novels written in their own name and female artists like Mary Beale (1632-1697) and Susan Penelope Rosse (1652-1700) were able to gain a foothold. Political changes took place during this period as well, not only as a result of a strong female queen but also as a result of an expanding world thanks to developed technology and a stronger international position. “Although she was Queen of England, [Elizabeth] shared some of her rule with Parliament, a body made of men chosen to represent the various areas of England” (Judkins, 2008). While this body had voting rights to a greater degree than they’d had in the past as counselors, they were not yet the democratic system of today. At the same time that the English government was becoming more liberal, advances in technology was allowing it to become more global. Sailing ships had been developed with more streamlined shapes and lighter designs, enabling the English navy to assert certain dominance over that of the fabled Spanish Armada, to that point the strongest power on the seas. “Improvements in navigation led to improved maps and charts … As a result of these combined improvements, captains began pushing their ships to more distant lands. New trading routes were secured which led to increased competition in trade and wider availability of exotic products” (Judkins, 2008). Faster, more maneuverable ships and greater range of travel enabled England to begin colonizing far away lands and establish itself as a true world power moving into the 17th century and beyond. While the Renaissance spirit flourished throughout most of Elizabeth’s reign, upon James’ ascension to the throne, England began to experience the more negative side of this spirit. As more and more individuals began to question the established hierarchy of tradition and authoritative positions such as monarchies and the positions of the Catholic church lost their ability to control the masses. While literature, art, music and the sciences continued to flourish during what is now referred to as the Jacobean period, contributing to the rise of the middle class, the country nevertheless experienced a severe economic depression toward the end of James’ reign. “Some experts believe that the rule of James and the explosive changes to the culture contributed greatly to the overthrow of the monarchy by Oliver Cromwell and the English Civil war that shortly followed” (Ellis, 2008). Conclusion The Renaissance traces its beginnings to Italy at the start of the 14th century. This was primarily the result of scientists, artists and philosophers taking a closer look at the ancient knowledge passed down to them from the Greeks and Romans. This knowledge was quickly adopted by the artists emerging during the period, slowly developing artistic techniques through the application of science, mathematics and perspective to create much more realistic images that conveyed a sense of three-dimensionality. This ability to create images that could be envisioned in real space itself led to an explosion of ideas even as these artists were exploring subjects once considered taboo, such as the ancient mythologies of these past civilizations. As the Renaissance advanced, these techniques became increasingly developed and dissipated throughout the known world, particularly into France, Germany and Spain. It took quite a bit longer to reach England, beginning, as the Italians did, with art. The difference was typically that this artwork was imported such as the tapestries based on Raphael’s cartoons of the Acts of the Apostles. The English Renaissance was characterized much more by its explorations in literature and music than it was through the visual arts, but retained much of the same focus and became further influenced by the radical teachings of a man named Martin Luther, who managed to free England from the power of the church through his presentation of Reformation ideas. Whether in Italy or England, the Renaissance meant for many a realization of a dual nature in things, an increased focus on the individual and the importance of individual development and an incessant exploration of the varied possibilities both in the past and into the future. References Battle of Cascina. (1505). Michelangelo Bounarroti. Cartoon. Private Collection. Campbell, Gordon. (2004). Renaissance Art and Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press. Connor, Linda. (2006). “Leonardo da Vinci: A Portrait of a Man and His Time.” Computer Application in Education. Manitoba, Canada: University of Manitoba. Ellis, Jessica. (2008). “What was the Jacobean Era.” WiseGeek. Conjecture Corporation. Available October 23, 2008 from Greenblatt, Stephen (Ed.). The Norton Shakespeare. New York: Norton, 1997. Judkins, David. (2008). “Life in Renaissance England.” Texas: University of Houston. Available October 23, 2008 from Kreis, Steven. (October 11, 2006). “The Protestant Reformation.” The History Guide. Available October 23, 2008 from Lemaitre, Alain J. & Lessing, Erich. (1993). Florence and the Renaissance. Paris: Terrail Press. Manley, Frank. (1969). “The Nature of Faustus.” Modern Philology. Vol. 66, N. 3, pp. 218-231. Marlowe, C. (1616; reprint 1996). “Dr. Faustus”. Masterplots. Ed. S. Flecher. Salem Press, Inc. “Masaccio.” (2006). The National Gallery. Trafalgar Square, London: The National Gallery. Available October 23, 2008 from Mona Lisa. (1503-1506). Leonardo da Vinci. Oil on poplar. Musee du Louvre, Paris. Pioch, Nicolas. (July 27, 2002). “Giotto di Bondone.” WebMuseum Paris. Available October 23, 2008 from School of Athens. (1509-1510). Raphael. Fresco. Vatican City, Apostolic Palace. Shakespeare, William. (1969). “Hamlet.” The Complete Pelican Shakespeare. New York: Penguin Group, pp. 930-976. Read More