American Civil Exam - Assignment Example

1. Andrew Johnson wasn’t supposed to be the President of the United s. Abraham Lincoln tapped him as a running mate for the 1865 election because Johnson was a Southerner with Union leanings — he traveled around Tennessee before the Civil War arguing against secession, and though he supported slavery, he put loyalty to the national government before his personal beliefs. This made him a good partner for Lincoln, who wanted to reconcile with the seceded South and appreciated. The Republican Party even changed its name to the National Union Party so that it could include anti-war Southern Democrats like Johnson. Johnson was also a headstrong, hard-drinking, politically incorrect Vice President, who reportedly showed up at his own inauguration intoxicated and was famous for making inappropriate political statements, such as saying publicly that Confederate President Jefferson Davis should be hanged for treason. When Lincoln was assassinated, Johnson became President by default. Once their initial excitement was over — the Republican Congress saw Johnson’s inflammatory statements as a sign that he would pursue more aggressive action against the South than the conciliatory policies of Lincoln — the Republicans found themselves frustrated by Lincoln’s replacement. Impeachment talk began within a year of Johnson assuming the Presidency. The problem was essentially the same problem Lincoln had faced, but Johnson didn’t have Lincoln’s prestige and power. The Republican Congress was determined to wield its power over the defeated South as it would wield its power over any defeated territory, and they argued that the Southern states should be denied statehood and held under military rule. Johnson, who had been so militant in denouncing the Southern Confederacy, felt that states did not forfeit their sovereignty because of war and that after the state leaders were replaced and the war ended, states should be able to rehabilitate themselves. It’s fair to point out that the delayed reentry of the Southern states to the Union had benefits for the Republican Congress, since their majority would certainly be threatened by an influx of Southern Democrats. Hostilities continued to deepen between President Johnson and Congress. Johnson vetoed several Reconstruction bills, including the Civil Rights Act and the Fourteenth Amendment, only to have his vetoes overturned by the House. (Overturns of Presidential vetoes were incredibly rare and usually minor, so these overturns marked a dramatic shift in the relationship between Congress and the President.) Things came to a head in 1968, when Johnson, who had inherited Lincoln’s Cabinet when Lincoln was assassinated, decided to fire his Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, who publicly supported the radical Republicans over Johnson. Under the 1867 Tenure of Office Act (another of Johnson’s vetoed bills overturned by Congress), Johnson was prohibited from firing any of his staff who’d been approved by the Senate for their position. After a gentlemanly stand-off in the War building between Stanton and his appointed replacement, the House voted to adopt and Impeachment Resolution, citing Johnson’s disregard of the Tenure of Office Act as well as other “high crimes” and misdemeanors.” The Republican argument was simple: Johnson had openly violated the Tenure of Office Act. Plus, the House went on to add, he was “an accidental Chief” and the “elect of an assassin.” By this time, the House was openly hostile — a fact that historians say might have hurt their case. Of course, the Tenure of Office Act was a convenience, and the Republicans’ real beef with Johnson was his continued refusal to support their hardcore Reconstruction policies. Johnson’s defense rested on three points: One, that Johnson hadn’t appointed Stanton so the Tenure of Office Act didn’t apply; two, that since Johnson hadn’t succeeded in removing Stanton, he hadn’t violated the Act; and three, the Act unconstitutionally infringed on the powers of the President. Johnson won his case by one vote. He lost the 1868 Presidential election. What’s interesting about Johnson’s impeachment is that for a long time it obscured his policy. It’s easy to be sympathetic to Johnson, a lone President in a sea of hostile Congressmen, but in fact, considering the bills that Johnson vetoed and his reasons for doing so, it’s clear that Johnson was not the Reconstruction President American needed. He consistently voted against laws that allowed former slaves basic rights, and his open conflict with the Republicans and refusal to work with them to craft policy probably contributed to some of the problems of Reconstruction life for Southerners. 2. a. The American railroad system opened up the American interior, making it both possible and practical for ordinary people to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. As railroads sprang up across the country, so did settlement of America’s vast interior. Interstate commerce blossomed, as transportation became quick and reliable. Railroads also brought work for immigrants, especially Irish and Chinese immigrants, who came to the United States to work on the railroad and stayed after the railroads were completed. The railroad linked Americans for trade, for commerce, for settlement and for travel. The transcontinental railroad is often considered the greatest technological feat of the nineteenth century because of the way it revolutionized the American landscape. 2. b. As the Industrial Revolution promoted the growth of factory jobs for many Americans, workers looked for a way to ensure their safety, command fair wages and generally inhabit a healthier working environment. Unions began to emerge as a way for employees to have say in their employment. The largest of these unions was the American Federation of Labor, also known as the AFL, which was founded in 1886 on Socialist principles. (The AFL quickly shed its Socialist image for a more mainstream one.) The AFL operated on the principle that a union should be run in the same was that a corporation is run, a principle called business unionism. Acting on this principle, the AFL became involved in politics, supporting politicians who spoke in favor of equitable worker treatment and fair working conditions and denouncing politicians who favored businesses at the expense of their employees. By throwing a spotlight on America’s workforce and organizing workers to achieve shared goals, the AFL gave workers a power and prominence they had not previously held. (It’s worth noting that, especially during its first decades, this power and influence was largely reserved for skilled white male workers; women and blacks, as well as other ethnic groups, were generally excluded, either subtly or overtly. 2. c. Andrew Carnegie set the standard for the new breed of American millionaire and in doing so helped to create the idea of the American Dream. A Scottish immigrant whose family borrowed money to come to Pennsylvania, Carnegie started work at age 13 in a factory and found steadily more lucrative work, ultimately becoming an important employee of the booming railroad. He earned enough money to start his own company, the Carnegie Steel Company, which was eventually purchased by J.P. Morgan for a huge sum of money. Every bootblack and newsboy on the street hoped to follow the course charted by Carnegie, who was proof that in America hard work could equal success no matter what your background. 2. d. The Pullman Strike of 1984 called into question the authority of the federal government over private businesses. The American Railway Union, frustrated with low wages and long hours and met with refusals to discuss the problem from the Pullman company, launched a strike that essentially stopped trains from moving west of Chicago. President Grover Cleveland sent federal troops to break up the strike and get the trains moving again. Though the Supreme Court validated Cleveland’s decision, it was hugely unpopular and played a role in his failure to be nominated by the Democratic Party to run for a second term, a signal of the uneasy alliance between business and the federal government that remains an issue to this day. Read More