History of the Australian Aboriginal People - Coursework Example

History of The Australian Aboriginal People The term 'aborigines' is believed to be coined from a Latin word that means 'original inhabitants' (Siasoco, 2006), thus Australia's aborigines are the native or indigenous people who lived in the area before the first European invasion in the late eighteenth century. There seems to be no agreement on when the aborigines first settled in Australia, for example, the Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia has it that the aborigines have been in Australia more than 40,000years, Siasoco (2006), perhaps trying to be more conservative, posit that Aborigines settled in Australia, at least 30,000years ago, while Horton (1994) argue that it cannot be earlier than 50,000years that the aborigines came to Australia. However, what appears to be clear is that the first Aboriginal settlers colonized what is now Australia between 30,000 and 80,000 years ago via what is now Papua New Guinea or what is now Indonesia (Australian Aboriginal History, 2002; Siasoco, 2006). In 2001 the population of aborigines and Torres Straits Islanders was 366,429, approximately 1.9% of the Australian population as a whole and slightly more than the estimated aboriginal population of 350,000 at the time of European colonization in the late 18th century. At the time of the European invasion, there were 500-600 distinct groups of aborigines speaking about 200 different languages or dialects [at least 50 of which are now extinct] (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2006). Although culturally diverse, these groups were not political and economic entities and lacked class hierarchies and chiefs. These aboriginal people were hunter-gatherers who lived in small family groups of 15or 30, called bands. Bands were the basic residential and economic unit (Siasoco, 2006; Arrernte Culture, 2006). Despite their variety and differences, the aboriginal people possess several unifying factors. Among these are strong spiritual beliefs that tie them to the land; a tribal culture of storytelling and art; and, like other indigenous populations, a difficult colonial history. The links between the different social or cultural groups were based on kinship and marriage ties, common ceremonial affiliation and shared ownership of, or responsibility for, sacred sites and objects. People within these social networks frequently co-operated to exploit abundant resources during good seasons or to share scarce resources during drought or flood (Siasoco, 2006). The aboriginal people are a culturally and religiously rich people. Their social structure, family ties and classification system is almost as complex as the people. However, spiritually, unlike other religions, aboriginal belief does not place the human species apart from or on a higher level than nature. Their spirituality involves a close relationship between humans and nature. Aborigines believe some of their Ancestors metamorphosed into nature (as in rock formations or rivers), where they remain spiritually alive. In the oral tradition of storytelling, aborigines refer to the beginning of the world as "Dreaming," or "Dreamtime. In the "Dreaming", or the Alchera of the Aranda, the aborigines believed that their ancestors who rose from below the earth wandered on a featureless world and gave the world its present shape and form; they believe that their ancestors metamorphosed to form different various parts of nature including animal species, bodies of water, and the sky (Arrernte Culture, 2006; Australian Aboriginal History, 2002). The aborigines have an intricate classification system that defines kinship relations and regulates marriages. The Kariera, for example, are divided into hordes, or local groups of about 30 people, which are divided into four classes, or sections. Membership in a section determines ritual and territorial claims. In half of the hordes the men are divided among the Karimera and Burung sections; in the other half they are divided among the Palyeri and Banaka sections. These sections are exogamous, and rules of marriage, descent, and residence determine how these sections interact: Karimera men must marry Palyeri women, and their children are Burung, and so on. Sons live in the same hordes as their fathers, so the composition of hordes alternates every generation. The complex system, by requiring each man to marry a woman from only one of the three possible sections, fosters a broad network of social relations and creates familial solidarity within the horde as a whole (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia, 2006). Aboriginal people take great pride in their culture, personal and group identity, in this regard, differentiation of virtually every aspect of their culture and society has been used, at sometimes, to create a mark of identity. However, the aboriginal culture and history have passed through a lot in history. Their history has been characterised, on the one hand showing continuities through time and space, and on the other hand, as showing great changes through time and major diversity across space. Amazingly, both characterisations appear to be correct and both have greatly influenced the politics of Aboriginal Australia. Nevertheless, no matter where aboriginal people come from in Australia, they are seen, recognised and recognise each other as one; this, perhaps, is one of the main aspect of continuity in the aboriginal history (Horton, 1994). According to Horton (1994), the continuity of the aboriginal culture and history is best exemplified in the simple lifestyle of the aboriginal people. Despite having spent more than 40,000years in the area, 200years ago, they were still living by hunting and gathering, and using stone tools and thus were seen as being like the Palaeolithic (Stone Age) people of Europe. Whereas the Palaeolithic people had eventually developed agriculture, pottery, metals and the wheel, on their way to civilisation, Aboriginal people, it was said, were like fossils, remaining unchanged for thousands of years. This simple lifestyle of the aborigines, according to Horton, generated two great misconceptions: one, that Aboriginal people were culturally uniform, and two, that they had so little attachment to the land, and made so little use of it that the continent was described as 'Terra Nullius' (empty land) by the first invaders. However, archaeological l work, over time, has not only shown that the aborigines have indeed been in this area for as long as they claimed, but also that during this enormously long time there had been great changes in both the geography of Australia and the culture of this people. According to archaeological findings, about 30,000 years ago the area now Australia had been mainly a green and pleasant land in which giant animals roamed, lakes were full, and mountains were snow covered. However, 15,000 years ago the land was even more heartbreaking than it is now, with the desert core hugely enlarged, and sand dunes blowing in Victoria and even part of Tasmania. Around 10,000 years ago the climate and vegetation patterns reached approximately their present condition. Through all this time, sea levels were also fluctuating (Horton, 1994; Australian History). At their lowest point Australia formed one giant land mass from the bottom of Tasmania through to New Guinea. Over such a long period, and with such major changes it is virtually impossible to imagine any group of people remaining culturally and technologically static. A major understanding of the changes and continuities of these people over such a long time will definitely involved an examination of the various adaptive responses that enabled the aborigines to survive through these environmental changes. Throughout this ancient history of the Aboriginal people there were many changes more important than technological ones. Many different styles of rock art appeared in different regions, and there are changes over time, from the stylised, symbolic ancient engravings to the colourful X-ray art of the north and the vivid hunting scenes of east and west. Together with changes in burial practices, such differences undoubtedly reflect changing religious beliefs and rituals (Horton, 1994). Over an unimaginably long period of time and the immense distances of the Australian continent, regional differences in language, religion, social organisation, art, economy and material culture arose. Some of these differences in resources and material culture could be balanced by trade, and over time great trade routes developed. Goods could travel all the way from the north to the south of the continent. Other routes went from east to west, or from the centre to the edge. Not only goods travelled these routes, but ideas for technological innovation, and songs, ceremonies and news all travelled with the lines of people carrying baskets of pituri or ochre on their heads, or bundles of spears on their shoulders. Diversity has always been a feature of Aboriginal society and has been manifested in many different ways. There were several hundred distinct languages (two-thirds of which are now extinct), each on average having several dialects. Songs, stories, dances, ceremonies, Dreamings and paintings were all owned in different ways depending on complex laws. People took pride in differences in initiation practices. The houses they lived in, the spears that were carried, and the animals that were hunted all differed in subtle ways between neighbours and differed greatly over great distances (Australian Aboriginal History, 2002; Arrernte Culture, 2006). In spite of the diversity at another level, Aboriginal culture shows many consistent features across the continent and through history. The fact that there were no invasions before 1788 contributed to this unity - all Aboriginal people are related to each other. Trade also helped, but it thrived on the fact of difference. The greatest contributors to maintaining unity were probably the great ceremonial meetings which took place in all parts of Australia when seasonal conditions were suitable and abundant food sources were available. People travelled hundreds of kilometres to such gatherings, and hundreds, perhaps thousands of people could gather for some weeks on each occasion (Horton, 1994; Siasoco, 2006). Contact with British settlers, beginning in 1788, initially led to economic marginalization, a loss of political autonomy, and death by disease. So-called pacification by force culminated in the late 1880s, leading to a massive depopulation and extinction for some groups. By the 1940s almost all aborigines were missionized and assimilated into rural and urban Australian society as low-paid labourers with limited rights; many aborigine children were taken from their natural parents and given to foster parents to promote assimilation (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia, 2006). The 1967 referendum for the first time gave the Commonwealth Government power to legislate for Aboriginal people. While in some ways this was of more symbolic than practical value, the result and after effects did signal the beginning of action and organisation at a national level. There is still considerable diversity in both culture and political life in Aboriginal Australia. While all Aboriginal people share a desire to retain their identity, a belief in land rights, a desire to control their own affairs, and a desire to remove the economic and social disadvantages of Aboriginal people generally, there is considerable diversity in strategies to achieve those aims (Horton, 1994). In 1976 and 1993 the Australian government enacted land-rights legislation that has returned to the aborigines a degree of autonomy, and court decisions in 1992 and 1996 recognized aboriginal property rights. The recent increase in aboriginal population reflects improved living conditions and a broad and inclusive definition of aboriginal identity on the part of the government. Their average standard of living and life expectancy, however, are not comparable with that of most Australians. In 1999 the Australian government issued an official expression of regret for past mistreatment of aborigines, but has opposed issuing the formal national apology sought by aborigine leaders, fearing that would encourage claims for compensation (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia, 2006). There appears to be a re-awakening of the aboriginal identity, however, while this sense of Aboriginality, a belief in particular styles and approaches, is held by all Aboriginal artists, musicians, sports people and writers, every Aboriginal person develops that Aboriginality in their own unique way. Every region of Australia has its own land council, and most have their own cultural centres, festivals and so on. Torres Strait Islanders have particularly expressed a wish to have the uniqueness of their own history and culture recognised, and some other regions have expressed similar views. As in the past, however, meetings of groups and a sense of shared history and culture and common needs, will see the diverse indigenous peoples of Australia unified; obviously, this could be one of the main continuity of the Aboriginal culture, the ability to unite in diversity. References Arrernte Culture (2006). Aboriginal Australia Art & Culture Centre - Alice Springs. Retrieved Online 6th June 2006 from Australian Aboriginal History (2002). Online Essay. Retrieved 6th June 2006 from Australian History [Online Essay]. Australian Explorer. Retrieved 6th June 2006 from Horton, D. R (1994). Unity and Diversity: The History and Culture of Aboriginal Australia. Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Retrieved online 6th June 2006 from Siasoco, Ricco Villanueva (2006). Aboriginal Australia: History and culture of Australia's indigenous peoples. Information Please Database, Pearson Education, Inc. Retrieved 6th June 2006 from The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia 6th ed (2006). Australian aborigines. Columbia University Press. Retrieved Online 6th June 2006 from Appendix Fig 1. Aboriginal Cave Painting Fig 2. Aboriginal Family Structure Fig 3. Skin Names Chart Fig 4. Aboriginal Dancer Read More