To What Extent Was the Enlightenment Socially Inclusive - Essay Example

? TO WHAT EXTENT WAS THE ENLIGHTENMENT SOCIALLY INCLUSIVE? The 18th century was a historical period that experienced significant andradical cultural and social transformation, especially in Europe. Historians and philosophers such as Peter Gay have viewed enlightenment as an integrated cross- European movement that involved specified groups of intellectuals and professionals. Intellectuals who participated in the 18th century enlightenment had comparable progressive and anti-religious standpoint on the society (Melton 2001, p. 17). However, contemporary scholars have viewed enlightenment as a movement that entailed many scopes. Scholars such as Robert Darnton associated enlightenment with the conventional enlightenment philosophy. As observed by modern scholars, to understand the extent in which enlightenment was socially inclusive, systematic evaluation on intellectual progress that took place to both intellectuals and other people from different social status is vital (Hof 1994, p. 91). Initially, enlightenment involved both low and high enlightenment process in Europe at different levels. The essay will therefore focus on the extent in which enlightenment was socially inclusive. The extent to which enlightenment was socially inclusive in the European continent in the 18th century can best be evaluated by systematically analysing two enlightenments, the low enlightenment and the high enlightenment. The high enlightenment is the intellectual progress among the intelligent people of the 18th century who included professional elites and nobles. These elites and other intellectuals in the society were also in a position of accessing, reading, and writing publications such as encyclopaedia (Israel 2001, p. 127). In addition, high enlightenment received impetus from natural philosophical writings and publications. The works and publications of natural philosophers as well as the role of academic institutions increased the popularity and intellectual curiosity of the high enlightenment. Moreover, the elites and professionals in the 18th century came up with “Republic of Letters” that were read by people from different states in Europe (Chukwudi Eze 1996, P. 256). Professionals and social elites who did not take part in writing publications participated in reading and debating the enlightenment ideas and teaching either in their social gathering or in salon centres. Social and political leaders and advisors also showed endless interests in opinions, teachings, and ideas that were contained in the “Republic Of Letters”. Religious leaders including Frederick the great also confirmed that, the ideas and contents that were contained in the “Republic of Letters” demonstrated religious tolerance in the treatment of Huguenots, Jesuits and Jews (Muthu, 2003, p. 137). Despite being apparent, the definition and the explanation of the ideas that are contained in high enlightenment has proved to be complicated. Example of the existing contradictions in the understanding and definition of the contents contained in enlightenment is found in “Essay on Miracle” composed by David Hume’s in 1748. The essay questions the existence of miracle as stated in the publications that talk about enlightenment. Thomas Sherlock’s “Trial of the Witness of the Resurrection of Jesus” (1729) confirms the existence of miracle in the society. Currently, there is no specific party charter that can be used by scholars to understand the enlightenment principles (Rousseau and Porter 1990, P. 147). Despite insufficient information regarding enlightenment principles, scholars have made several generalisations on the principles of enlightenment. Enlightenment talked about the significance and relevance of intellectual curiosity. Enlightenment also emphasised the importance of pursuing practical ideas that could improve human life. In addition, scholars also taught the significance of independent mind and debate as well as the need for revaluation of the entire bodies of knowledge (Black 1990, p. 91). Low enlightenment entails cultural and social development of the working class who were denied access to information and new ideas by wealthy people in the society. Traditionally, low enlightenment was presumed to be unaffected by enlightenment thoughts. However, recent studies have confirmed that, working class was to some extent affected by enlightenment thoughts. Low enlightenment ideas were spread through printed media. Intelligent section and middle class of the society accessed low enlightenment ideas and teaching. Traditionally, literacy was presumed to be the ability to write one’s name. Many people who were assumed to be educated lacked the ability to read books and other publications. Women were however in a better position to read books as compared to their male counterparts. The popularity of the low enlightenment was also enhanced by high level of literacy that was brought about by increase in the sale of books in the late 18th century. For instance, in the 18th century, male literacy levels in France rose from less than 29% to more that 48% in the late 18th century. Women’s literacy level rose from 14% in 1690 to 27% in 1790 (Porter 2000, p. 91). There was also need to raise the intelligence level in other states including England, Prussia, and United provinces. The increase in the literacy level among society’s members resulted to the increase in the publication and sale of printed materials. For instance, the sale of “Vox Stellarum” that is a common British almanac increased from 10,7000 in the early 18th century to more than 220,000 in the late 18th century (Whelan 2009,P. 123). The semi-literate people in north eastern provinces relied on “Bibliotheque”. A “Bibliotheque” was series of paperbacks that contained cooking recipes and farming methods. Later in the century, theological writing became less popular to the intelligent people in the society. In Prussian markets, the sale of theological books declined from 40% in 1740 to less than 14% in the early 1800. The reductions in the sales of theoretical books were due to the emergence of natural science reading materials and novels. The century also witnessed a rise in the number of underground scandalous literatures. As a result, the 18th century readers in Germany and France were not engrossed by previous high enlightenment ideas. Despite not being engrossed by high enlightenment ideas, literate people in the society underwent significant change in their social and cultural beliefs (Darnton 2002, p. 137). Despite its popularity in Europe, enlightenment did not cover the entire social aspects in the continent. In some areas, the cosmopolitan culture was very influential and relevant. Enlightenment can be referred to as a patch-mark of national, social and cultural development. Moreover, the enlightenment ideas of pursuit for practical ideas as well as independent thinking gained a lot of popularity among elites in the society. Due to enlightenment, enlightened thinkers developed the independent thinking skills. Moreover, enlightened thinkers also liked to solve issues that affected the society by relying on the available resources. Despite valuing cosmopolitanism, the 18th century philosophers undertook intensive researches and travel to understand cultural background of other societies. The 18th century philosophers also used their gained knowledge to develop their society (Outram, 1995, p. 325). Despite having almost similar ideologies, there existed frosty relations between French intellectuals and English philosophers. As opposed to the English philosophers, the French intellectual had a very strong belief on the freedom of expression and publication, religious tolerance as well as parliamentary representation. The difference between the English elites and French intellectuals significantly affected low enlightenment as censorship laws ranged from strict policing in France to laissez-faire in united provinces. Moreover, the translation of the published materials also encountered some problems. It was a complicated process to translate the existing information to some languages such as Scottish. Lack of proper translation therefore led to the isolation of some people from the enlightenment ideas. For instance, the Prussia people who occupied the areas that were dominated by Protestants had low enlightenment as opposed to people who occupied areas that were dominated by Catholics (Scott 2009, p. 237). This was due to the fact that, people in protestant-dominated areas were more literate and emphasised more on scripture reading. The same case was also apparent in France where some areas such as provincial Cher had low literacy levels than other parts of the country. Enlightenment was presumed to necessitate economic development. Enlightenment increased the demands for reading materials such as books, breaking down social barriers through commercial activities. The economic nature of enlightenment explains the reason why southern Europe and other less prosperous countries had limited enlightenment. Enlightenment was far from an all-encompassing initiative as regional and national differences significantly affected transmission, thought, and ideas (Munck, 2000, p. 237). It is clear that enlightenment was a social and an intellectual transformation that occurred to both lower class and elite people in Europe. To some extent, enlightenment was socially inclusive in some regions and states while in other regions, enlightenment was not socially inclusive. The disparities in the role and impacts of enlightenment in different regions were brought about by the existing political, social, and economic development. The intelligence level also played a very essential role in influencing the impact of enlightenment in the society. Despite having different impacts in different regions especially in European continent, enlightenment had a considerable impact in entire Europe. In general, enlightenment had a significant impact on social settings in European states. References Black, J 1990, “Eighteenth Century Europe, 1700 – 1789”, London: Macmillan Education. Chukwudi Eze, E 1996, “Race and the Enlightenment: A reader”, Oxford: Blackwell. Darnton, R 2002, “The Literary Underground of the Old Regime”, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Im Hof, U 1994, “The Enlightenment”, Oxford and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Israel, J. I., 2001, “Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the making of modernity, 1650–1750”, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Melton, J., 2001, “The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Munck, T 2000, “The Enlightenment: A Comparative Social History, 1721 – 1794”, London: Oxford University Press. Muthu, S 2003, “Enlightenment against empire”, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press Outram, D 1995, “The Enlightenment”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Porter, R., 2000, “The Enlightenment”, Basingstoke: Macmillan Education. Rousseau, G.S. and Porter R 1990, “Exoticism in the Enlightenment”, Manchester: Manchester University Press. Scott, H 2009, “Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in later eighteenth-century Europe’, Basingstoke: Macmillan. Whelan, F.G 2009, “Enlightenment political thought, and non-western societies: Sultans and savages”, Abingdon: Routledge. Read More