Development of Indian-EuroAmerican Relations from Contact to Removal - Essay Example

? The Development of Indian-EuroAmerican Relations from Contact to Removal ID: The history of the United States of America is often considered in terms of the victors, the white Europeans who transformed the landscape of America after their own desires to form a white male democracy. This democracy has shaped the development of the United States and the people outside the country throughout history until the present day. However, a critical aspect of American history that cannot be forgotten is the development of Indian-EuroAmerican relations, especially from the time of the first contact to the time of the removal of the Indians. This relationship has consistently been marred by violence, broken promises and mistrust, and remains a key part of the American history. Early Indian-EuroAmerican relations were an ever-changing and involving area, where perceptions on both sides were not static. Indians had the ability to play different European powers off against each other, and, likewise, the Europeans did this with different Indian tribes. At this time, the two groups existed in a continually revolving relationship. Some tribes became nomadic, taking advantage of the newly introduced horses, while others settled down into permanent villages and made use of agriculture supplemented by hunting and gathering. Even before the first contact with the Europeans, Indians represented a diverse set of tribes that had their own interests, waged their own wars and formed their own alliances. Once the contact had occurred, Indians often welcomed alliances with the Europeans, or bought weapons and goods that made their lives easier (Howe 26-28). Relations between Indians and Europeans were marred by a significant effect that the Europeans had on their population. As the Europeans came in contact with Indians, they often passed on diseases which they (Europeans) had resistance to, but the Indians did not. In general, this transference was not intentional, and in most cases the Europeans were probably not aware that they had the diseases, as their immune systems fought against the effects. These diseases resulted in a high number of fatalities (Howe 28). At this point in Indian-EuroAmerican relations, there was a strong focus on integrating the two cultural groups by ‘westernizing’ the Indians. Many Indian tribes adopted aspects of the European culture and often chose which components of the new culture to accept and which to ignore. For example, the Navajo tribe moved from being nomads to weavers, sheepherders and silversmiths. Many other tribes or individuals converted to Christianity while others maintained their traditional religious beliefs. Some believed that they should unify with the Europeans, creating a peaceful coexistence throughout the United States. Others felt that Indian tribes should unify with one another against the Europeans (Howe 27). Some tribes created alliances and treaties with the Europeans to secure their own tribal rights and to work on the creation of a unified culture. One example of this is the Muskogee tribe, known to the Europeans as the Creek Indians. The tribe negotiated with George Washington’s administration to create a treaty, and developed a legal written code and national council. However, the influence of the Europeans on this tribe was not uniform, and a dissident faction called “Red Stick” arose, which resented the influence that Europeans were having on their culture. The uprising was not successful and resulted in a significant amount of bloodshed (Howe 28-29). The war between the United States and Britain in 1812 also had a significant impact on Indian-EuroAmerican relations. Despite the fact that some tribes attempted to choose neutrality in the war, most were compelled to choose to support one side or another. This resulted in many Indians fighting alongside either Americans or Europeans against Indian families or friends (Howe 29). This was an important factor after the war too, because many Indians fought on the losing side and had to live in a country that was run by those they had fought against. This led to the government and people of the United States being distrustful of the Indians, and may have been one of the factors influencing the European’s resentment of the Indian presence. The age of Andrew Jackson was one that had significant impacts on the Indians and on Indian-EuroAmerican relations. At this point in time, Indian tribes were present throughout the country and were involved in animal husbandry and agriculture. From the perspective of the whites, the Indians represented a threat, trading with free blacks, taking up land that could be used for cotton crops, and even occasionally providing a shelter for runaway slaves (Howe 42). One approach to the Indian culture was the attempt to merge it with white culture, where Indians made use of Western technology. This approach resulted in significant Cherokee economic development in and Indians becoming more independent, prosperous and politically organized. This was not the outcome that the whites had expected, and it resulted in less land available for the whites, rather than the increased amounts that they had hoped for. In 1823, the council of chiefs was approached to sell their land and migrate east of the Mississippi. The council, however, refused to sell even a single foot of their land and planned to remain on it, working the land for their own benefit. This was a right available to them under the treaties signed with the United States government (Howe 345-346). However, the growing prosperity of the Indians was not desired by the whites, a problem that came to a head in the state of Georgia. Georgia State determined that from June 1830 state law rather than national law would extend over the Cherokee Nation, based on the argument that the constitution of the United States was never designed to apply to savage and barbarous tribes. Before this date could be reached, the Cherokee discovered gold on their land, which resulted in a rush of white prospectors and violent clashes between the two groups. These events were strong drivers of the Indian Removal Act. Jackson perceived treaties as an absurd approach to the Indian ‘problem’ and argued that the government needed only to impose its collective will on the Indians (Howe 346-347). According to Jackson’s State of the Union address, the removal of Indians to beyond the Mississippi was voluntary. The Indian Removal Act was enacted in late May, 1830. The passage of Indian tribes from the old to new lands was difficult and caused significant hardship for the tribes. The Cherokee Nation provided significant resistance to the act, refusing to leave voluntarily, and nothing within the bill itself or national law gave Jackson the right to force them to leave. Despite this, Jackson decided to ignore previous treaties and laws and to force the Cherokees away from their land (Howe 353). The Cherokees turned to the Supreme Court, which ultimately decided that the Cherokees did not have to leave. Despite this landmark decision, Jackson forced the Cherokees to abandon their lands and homes. Some generals and leaders that played a role in the Indian removal hoped to still maintain the rights of the Indians and make the transition as smooth as possible, without significant bloodshed. This view was not shared by Jackson’s administration, and people with this perspective were not supported. In some cases, those that attempted to remove Indians in a dignified and considerate manner lost their jobs to be replaced by someone who could act quicker and harsher (Howe 420-422). Many Indians were sent to detention camps by the United States Army before being moved to a new land. Hygiene in the camps was bad, resulting in many Indian deaths. Furthermore, the removal itself was hit by harsh weather, leading to the march being infamously known as the “Trail of Tears”. It is estimated that of the 12,000 Indians that were part of the migration, around 4,000 died (Howe 415-416). This removal did not resemble in any way the promised peace and integration and was strongly damaging to Indian-EuroAmerican relations. It showed the Indians that the white Americans could not be trusted to uphold treaties that they signed, or even their own laws. The relationship between Indian and EuroAmerican people was severely damaged by the Indian Removal Act, and relations remained strained in the years that followed. One example of this is an Indian war in Oregon around 1848 (Potter 72). Indian-EuroAmerican relations moved from the time where trading and alliances were formed during early contact to the time of the decision that the rights of the Indians to their own lands or to promises under treaties that they had signed were ultimately irrelevant. Led by President Andrew Jackson, the white male democracy of the United States enforced its will on the Indians, the natives of the land, and determined that the wants and needs of the white population were more important than any claims or dignity of the Indians. The damage done to the relations between the races due to the removal is the damage that still remains. Works Cited Howe, Daniel Walker. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815-1848. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print. Potter, David M. The Impending Crisis 1848-1861. Ed. Henry Steele Commager and Richard M. Morris. New York, NY: Harper Colophon, 1986. Print. Read More