Mainstream Conceptions of Gender and Development - Term Paper Example

? Gender and Development Number Due Introduction The concept of gender and development has received considerable attention across the globe. Currently, gender and development is considered has an integral part of development and a strong pillar for global sustainable development. Gender relationships is important and has great implications on development due to its central function of providing opportunities and equity to both women and men in a bid for them to achieve their potentials (Porter & Sweetman, 2005) . The concept of gender has been understood differently from various quarters and the meaning widely used to refer to women and their circumstances. However, this is not the case as gender approaches and issues cover both men and women and the relationships between men and women. The emergence of gender and developed has taken shape over the past decades and it has evolved from issues of women to encompass both gender. To understand better the conception and development of gender and development, it is important to trace the history of gender and the emergence of gender and development as a concept. This paper critically examines the mainstream conceptions of gender and development by exploring the evolution of gender and development from feminist development approaches and the integration frameworks that led to its uptake. Conceptions of Gender and Development The emergence and conception of gender and development is pegged on the issue of gender and the relationships between men and women. Gender can be viewed on two aspects, namely, the social construction perspective and the relationship between sexes. As a socially constructed aspect, gender refers to the social design of a biological sex that is determined and influenced by the tasks, functions and roles that are attributed to women and men in society (Council of Europe, 2004). Gender also refers the social construction of the relationship between the sexes and it often revolves around unequal power relationship where male dominate while female act in subordination. Gender therefore refers to the range of socially constructed roles of males and females and the relationships between them. According to UNESCO, gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, societies, and cultures and it entails the expectations held on characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of femininity and masculinity (Jimenez & World Bank, 2007). Due to prior pre-defined gender roles, men and women usually undertake various productive and reproductive roles in development. Gender and development evolved as a sequence of western feminism theories and ideologies. Indeed, the history of gender and development issues requires thorough and comprehensive understanding of development and feminists theoretical frameworks and concepts. The evolution of gender and development can be attributed to the intensified global awareness of women and gender issues. During the pre-war days, women and gender issues were marginalized from development issues and processes. This period was characterized by a development phase where women were conspicuously absent and invisible and their experiences were ignored. However, there were little progress that was made in relation to the recognition and acknowledgement of experiences of prominent women in the society. This phase recognized the experience and contribution of prominent and unusual women but their activities were judged majorly from male perspectives (Parpart & Barriteau, 2000). The phase was also dominated by the societal emphasis on the differences between sexes and there roles in the roles. During the pre-world war period, development approaches and initiatives ignored women. The post world war period re-oriented the world perspective on gender issues as it gave rise to feminist approaches that underscored the experiences of women in the society. The initial feminist approach to gender aspect were women centered as they often neglected or excluded the experience of men in the process. With advancement in time, the approach changed and integration and interactional view of both male and female expectations, behaviour and power relationships were emphasized (Parpart & Barriteau, 2000). The above chronology can best describe the path that led to the emergence of women in development which later transformed to gender and development (discussed later in this paper in details). United Nations global conferences on women that were held between 1975 and 1995 played a crucial role in the emergence of gender and development. This is particularly evident in their core role of creating and raising awareness about gender inequality. In addition, The United Nations conferences on women developed important networks that advocated for the empowerment of women at both national and international levels (Olonisakin & Ikpe, 2010). Feminist approaches and frameworks played important role in influencing and changing the ways in which people viewed the society. Emergence of gender and development history is also linked to policy interventions in national countries that were skewed towards women empowerment and women movements (Porter & Sweetman, 2005). Women movements, policy makers and activists worked in concert and there efforts gave rise to the development and formulation of development and feminists considerations. At national development and particularly in developing countries, individuals and organizations sought ways for improving conditions of women in their respective countries. They agitated mainly for the inclusion of women in the development agenda and processes. In the past, women were excluded from mainstream development process, a fact that led to the emergence of feminists and development theories. Initially, women movements and policy formulations and directives focused on meeting the practical gender needs and interests of women. These included the daily needs of women such as caring for themselves and their children. They were also concerned with strategic gender roles for women such as change of tasks and the challenging the position of women as subordinate to men (Parpart & Barriteau, 2000). Women in Development A survey carried out in 1970 on the women’s role in economic development that focused majorly on the impact of development projects on third world women revealed major gaps (Parpart & Barriteau, 2000). The survey report revealed that most of the development projects ignored women and it further discovered that most of the sophisticated technologies used in the projects were constraints to economic opportunities and autonomy of women. Majority of trainings in sophisticated and new technologies were often offered to men, a fact that led to the improvement of male opportunities and technological knowledge in undertaking of modern projects. Subsequently, the enhanced male opportunities and technological knowledge in developmental projects reduced or eliminated the access of women to both technology and employment (Boserup, Kanji, Tan, & Toulmin, 2007). This led to the emergence of women in development as a concept. The initial proponents of women in development were women from United States who brought the concept to the attention of United States policy makers. The persistent lobbying and use of women in development term resulted in the Percy Amendment in 1973. Percy Amendment of 1973 required the execution of gender-sensitive and social impact studies for all development projects. The main aim of Percy Amendment was to involve and integrate women in development projects in there respective national economies and to create equal opportunity for women (Porter & Sweetman, 2005). Women in development (WID) concept is rooted in modernization theory and liberal feminist ideas on equality. Women in development approach equated economic change and growth in societies with women empowerment. It led to the rise of micro-credit policies and the inclusion and recognition of women in productive economy and most governments and donor agencies gradually integrated women into development. Women in Development approach also led to the launching of United Nations Decade for Women in 1975 in Mexico City. The theme of the conference was “Equality, Development and Peace.” The outcome of the conference was the emergence of World Action Plan on women that emphasized the integration of women into the development process (Boserup, Kanji, Tan, & Toulmin, 2007). As a result, most national governments set up offices that were in charge of women affairs and at the same time, international agencies increasingly recruited Women in Development experts so as to ensure the continuation of global advancement of women. Women and Development Although Women and Development approach contributed to the inclusion of most women in development process, it had some set backs. The approach laid more emphasis on the role of women as producers at the expense of domestic labor. Women in Development approach also need not address the issue of women subordination. The concept and approach of Women and Development is based on dependency theory and Marxist feminist ideas. Women and Development advocated for zero or no real policy change around involving women in the development process. The dependency theory deviated from the radical –feminists approach by rooting for alternative institutions within which women can fulfill and achieve their needs (Olonisakin & Ikpe, 2010). Proponents of Women and Development concept stressed on the creation of women only projects so as to protect them from patriarchal domination. Women and development (WAD) advocated for the distinctiveness of women’s knowledge, work, goals and responsibilities (Jimenez & World Bank, 2007). Gender and Development The mainstream conception of gender and development can hence be linked to the above concepts of Women in Development and Women and Development. A section of feminists and development theorists that are against the approaches of WID and WAD have fronted the concept of Gender and Development. They argue that both WID and WAD have failed to comprehensively address fundamental women factors that are geared towards the maintenance of gender equalities (Council of Europe, 2004). Gender and Development is largely based on empowerment approach and development planning that takes cognizant of gender issues. Gender and Development was later reinforced in United Nations Conference in Nairobi in 1987 where more than fifteen thousand women activist and it recognized the importance of global and gender inequities. Parpart and Barriteau (2000), asserts that GAD approach emerged as a result of experiences and analysis of western feminists who are interested in development issues and it aspires to integrate materialist political economy and patriarchal ideology. In order to study the nexus between women and development, Gender and Development adopts a two tier approach where it delves on the material conditions of women and class position and also the patriarchal factors and structures that contribute and maintain subordination of women I the society. The focus of GAD is on the relationships between men and women and not on women alone as presently advocated for by both WID and WAD. Conclusion Gender relationships are crucial and have greater implications on development and the sustained growth of economies. The concept of gender and development evolved after the failure of women in development and women and development theories to address gender and development in a comprehensive way. It transcends above modernization theory and liberal feminists ideas that formed basis of Women in Development and post-development theory and post-structural critiques of feminism that resulted in Women and Development approach. In addition, the role of United Nations conferences on Women that were held globally also played a crucial role in the mainstream conception of gender and dev elopement. Currently, gender and development approach has been adopted as an alternative to other forms of women and development approaches that emphasized on women opportunities, responsibilities, work and goals. The uptake of gender and development is hence rooted on the relationships between men and women and not women alone. References Boserup, E., Kanji, N., Tan, S. F., & Toulmin, C. (2007). Woman's Role in Economic Development. London : Earthscan. Council of Europe. (2004). Gender Mainstreaming: Conceptual framework, methodology and presentation of good practices . Retrieved April 13, 2012 , from http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re55.pdf Jimenez, E., & World Bank. (2007). World Development Report 2007:Development And the Next Generation. Washington,DC: World Bank Publications. Olonisakin, F., & Ikpe, E. (2010). Women, peace and security:translating policy into practice. New York : Taylor & Francis. Parpart, J. L., & Barriteau, E. (2000). Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development. Ottawa: IDRC. Porter, F., & Sweetman, C. (2005). Mainstreaming Gender in Development:A Critical Review. Oxford: Oxfam. Read More