The American Revolution and Reconstruction - Essay Example

Module The American Revolution, Civil War and Reconstruction: Determinants and Outcomes The period from the American Revolution through the Civil War to the Reconstruction is characterized by crises and strains as the nation sought to establish its identity and socio-economic and political organization. Established under the principles of human equality, the practice is quite debatable upon analysis of American history. The plights of different sections of the American society went through dynamic changes, enjoying periods of positive outlook followed by reversal of gains made in terms of rights, liberties and economic opportunities (Cobbs-Hofman and Gjerde 454). The interplay between African American and White elite’ history, alongside women’s movements and status can effectively bring out the themes of changing fortunes in relation to civil rights and dominance during the period under scrutiny. This study discusses the Civil War, the Reconstruction and the plights of African Americans, women and White elites during the period from the American Revolution to the Civil war. The thesis for the study is that the freedom spirit and equality as laid out in the Declaration of Independence were not maintained during this period. THE CIVIL WAR The American Civil War is one of the country’s stand-out points from a historical perspective. It is a fascinating aspect of American history in terms of the factors leading to the war, the course of the war and finally, its outcomes. As McPherson (2) explains, the Civil War broke out due to differences surrounding the right to engage in slavery between the free and slave states. According to Boyer et al. (443), both the North and South were largely unprepared for the war. This is discernible from the small armies existing at the beginning of the war and the lack of supportive structures for war. For instance, both sides lacked proper tax collection mechanisms, poor navies and underdeveloped railway lines. Boyer et al. argue that the first two years of the war involved the two sides heavily overcoming such deficiencies. The North and the South mobilized for war through conscription, rallying and budgetary allocations. The course of war was largely expected to swing in favor of the South (the Confederacy), as opposed to the North (the Union). Parallels with the American Revolution assured this, as the North faced the daunting task of forcing the South back to the Union while the South fought for independence. To subdue the South, the North had to be on the offensive, and that is over vast geographical areas. Although the Union was better equipped for war in terms of military size, railroad development and overall industrial development- its war resources paled in light of the just discussed challenge. The early course of the war made the South to win decisive victories and support (Boyer et al. 450-454). The main determinant of the outcome of the civil war revolved around the war picking the theme of independence especially in the North. This change in theme was to a large extent based on the qualities of the then President, Abraham Lincoln. McPherson (43) argues that, Lincoln’s abilities as a statesman and a politician alongside his steadfast stance on the value of the war, won support from the Northern population and ultimately the war itself. Grant and Reid (40) support this view, arguing that Lincoln made his analysis of the long term future of the USA known to all. He categorically viewed the US as either wholly free or wholly slave, and presented the Republican Party as inclined towards the extinction of slavery. Individuals against the war represented standing for slavery and vice versa. Thus, Lincoln effectively rallied the population, further helped by a stream of victories over the South (41). The exploits of the North’s generals- such as General Sherman- and the reelection of Lincoln effectively saw the North emerge victorious after four years of brutal war. Officially, slavery had ended and the North stepped in to govern the Confederacy, ushering in the Reconstruction period (Doeden 101-103; Cobbs-Hofman and Gjerde 473-474). THE RECONSTRUCTION The period immediately succeeding the Civil War had two broad issues; the integration of the defeated Southern states into the Union and the status of the freed men. According to Boyer et al. (353), reintegration of the USA was a major issue since there were lingering questions about how this should be done. Would it be the duty of the President or Congress? Should the former leaders of the South be tried for treason and made responsible for the war losses? Besides the reintegration, Boyer et al. (354) discuss the problems posed by the about 3.5 million freed African Americans. The emancipation had disrupted the socio-economic and political structure of the South, and the status of freed African Americans in the society was a burning issue. The fate of the civil rights of African Americans during the Reconstruction follows a path of success followed by ultimate failure. According to Boyer et al. (356), the reconstruction period saw crises and impasses that made the fortunes of the freed African Americans rise and dwindle within half a century. The African American Civil rights issue during the Reconstruction follows the national politics at the time; Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction in 1863 and the changes instituted to this by Johnson in 1864 onwards. Lincoln had planned to grant African Americans their rights to suffrage, not to be achieved at the time due to his assassination. The positive outlook of life for freed slaves following the end of slavery after the civil war soon reversed. President Johnson’s policies brought about the Black Codes, ensuring that a dependent Black labor force existed in the South while also being segregationist and economically restrictive. The Republicans interpreted Johnson’s actions as obstructions towards impeachment and, thus, tried to impeach him in 1967-68 (358-359). The rest of the Reconstruction period saw African American meetings to agitate for their civil rights and counter-efforts by White supremacists. Gains included democratic political rights (suffrage and representation), voice in society and institutions among others. However, a combination of White violence and the fall of Republicanism in the South soon reversed such gains. The period saw crowds of White people rampage in Black neighborhoods alongside killings epitomized by the formation of the Ku Klux Klan (Boyer et al. 359-360). Politically, the South abandoned the Reconstruction as Democrats took power and sought to redeem their land. The Southerners curtailed the rights of the freed men, alongside instituting vagrancy laws, targeted criminal codes, inhumane restrictions and other avenues of preventing freed men from living off the land to ensure a Black labor force. A testament of the eradication of African American rights in the South is their large scale migration from Southern to Northern states. Their plight worsened when the Republican Party got back to power in the late 1870s. Hence, the 19th century came to a conclusion with the virtual abandonment of African American civil rights (Hofman and Gjerde 475-476). Human Equality during the Formative Years of the USA: The founding fathers of the USA had envisioned a nation grounded in the ethos of equality as evidenced by the statement that “…all men are created equal…” in the US Declaration of Independence (Spicker 77). However, that equality of mankind was guaranteed during the unfolding of the history of the USA is quite debatable. Equality issues have always been at the center of economic, social and political upheavals throughout the history of the USA. This part of the study focuses on the issue of equality during the American Revolution, the Civil War and Reconstruction in regards to African Americans, women and white elites. The plight of African Americans during the period between the American Revolution and the Civil War is testament enough that not all sections of the American society enjoyed equal rights, liberties and opportunities. Their history showcases periodic positive and negative outlooks on their welfare. First, both free and slave African Americans participated in the War of Independence on both sides. The British and the Revolutionists both conscripted African Americans after promising them freedom after service. The period of the War saw African Americans have mixed fortunes; whereas a sizeable number were freed, an equally significant number were relocated and livelihoods disrupted. This was coupled by indirect and direct deaths from the war. The period after the war saw African Americans suffer different fates basing on the geographical location as the North moved towards freedom from slavery while the South upheld it. Boyer et al. (353) exemplifies this in discussing the internal slave trade observed in the South to support cotton and sugar cane farms. The Civil War had the African American at its center through the cause of the war and in terms of involvement. It resulted in the end of slavery, followed by a period of gains in African American civil rights which were then quickly reversed in the South. Thus, African Americans were treated as second class citizens or non-citizens throughout early USA history (354). During the period of the American Revolution, traditional societal organization constrained women to the household and child rearing. Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis warren exemplify this perhaps in the best way. The two women, thought not representative of the average American women due to their elite being, were aware of socio-economic and political on-goings as demonstrated by their questioning of inequality with men during their era of influence (Gelles 34). The gender inequity and inequality persisted throughout the post-Revolution period, opposed by the advent of women’s movements during the 1840s. However, such efforts would not gain success, and improvements in women’s welfare would be intricately connected with African American civil rights movements. According to Boyer et al. (356-357), focus on the suffrage rights of African Americans also brought t light suffrage issues of women. Women movement efforts would reorganize and gain much ground after the Civil War, achieving suffrage rights in a number of states alongside property and child custody rights (Riley 499). The historical outlook for White elites indicates periods of supremacy and challenges coinciding with lows and highs in the plight of African Americans. They hijacked the fruits of the American Revolution thereby enjoying supremacy for many decades before the Civil War. This is especially true in the Southern states where White elites formed a social, economic and political order that catered for their interests at the expense of other sections of the American society. For instance, the Southern White elites instituted and maintained a labor system based on slavery (Cobbs-Hofman and Gjerde 476). They went to extraordinary lengths to defend their stranglehold on society as evidenced by their resolve and early victories during the Civil War. However, their interests were squashed, albeit temporarily, by the victory of the Northerners. The republicans prevailed and brought an end to slavery, leading to the emigration of a significant number of White supremacists out of the USA (Boyer et al. 353-354). Those who remained survived the early Reconstruction period and had their way in blocking the process, effectively reconstituting the labor system based on denying African American Rights. Thus, by the end of the 19th Century, the White supremacists had again had their way in directing societal organization (354). CONCLUSION A critical discussion of the Civil War, the Reconstruction and the American Revolution reveal that inequity pervaded in place of the principles of equality in early post-independence America. African Americans and Women lived in situations in which they were second-class citizens or non-citizens as evidenced by restrictions on their civil rights. Meanwhile, White supremacists were the principal beneficiaries of this social-economic and political organization as they saw their interests fulfilled in maintaining the status quo. Changes in fortunes for these sections of American society are discernible; there are periods of positive outlooks for women and African Americans and inverse effect on White elites during and after the Civil War. However, such improvements in welfare were sooner or later reversed, as exemplified by the violent and political successful counter-efforts made by elite Southerners to reverse the gains made in the end of slavery during the second half of the 19th Century. This leads to the conclusion that the spirit of equality and freedom as set by the founding fathers of America was reneged upon during the period under study. Works Cited Boyer, Paul et al. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People, vol. 1: To 1877. Boston: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning, 2011. Print. Cobbs Hoffman, Elizabeth and Gjerde, Jon. Major Problems in American History, vol. 1, to 1877. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin, 2012. Print. Gelles, Edith B. Abigail Adams: A writing Life. USA: Routledge, 2002. Print. Grant, Susan-Mary and Reid, Brian H. Themes of the American Civil War: The War between the States 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print. McPherson, James M. Abraham Lincoln. NY: OUP, 2009. Print. Riley, Glenda. Inventing the American Woman: Since 1877. USA: Harlan Davidson, 2001. Spicker, Paul. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. NY: PP, 2006. Print. Read More