What Are the Political and Cultural Developments of the Ancient and Medieval Eras - Term Paper Example

?What are the political and cultural developments of the ancient and medieval eras? INTRODUCTION The Ancient period is believed to have ended with the fall of the Roman Empire in A.D. 476, followed by the Medieval Age that lasted for about a thousand years. It is believed that it was at this time that the Germanic Tribes, referred to as Barbarians took over the area that had previously been under the control of the Romans. The Medieval Era is also referred to as the Dark Ages as there was very little writing, science or culture during this period. This period is finally believed to have ended with the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453. During all these years, the world has been a witness to innumerable events and discoveries, which have had a tremendous impact on our lives (The Dynamic Culture of the Middle Ages, n.d.). MESOPOTAMIA Mesopotamia, was originally the area around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Today, we know this region as the modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. Historians believe that the earliest civilizations began in a land which today is the modern Iraq. Geographically Iraq belongs to Mesopotamia of the Old Testament. The land of Mesopotamia was filled with surplus water resources and was a land with plenty of valleys and rivers. It was a land of fertile vegetation, plentiful wildlife, and abundant water. This paved way for producing surplus food and for the development of civilization. Civilization here was initialized by many rulers like Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.), Cyrus (550-530 B.C.), Darius (520-485 B.C.), and Alexander (336-323 B.C.). By 6000 B.C., Mesopotamia was occupied chiefly by Turkish and the Iranians. Southern Mesopotamia was the area from where a high sense of religion developed. Many of the important Mesopotamian cities developed in areas that surrounded Sumerian culture centers. This helped in the development of a close relationship between the government and religion. The ancient cities like Babylon and Assyria were a part of Iraq. There were also many attempts made for flood control and joint irrigation. This was very helpful in initializing the development of this civilization. Mesopotamia was controlled by different people at different times, starting with the Sumerians in around 3500 B.C. The Sumerians are said to have invented the wheel and the Cuneiform script, which most historians regard as the earliest form of writing. Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies for each month based on the waxing and waning of the moon, equinoxes and solstices, etc. Music played a very important part in their lives, and songs were sung to children, which and these were passed on through many generations as an oral tradition. Later these provided a valuable source of information about their past history. They used a small stringed musical instrument called the Oud, which is considered as a forerunner to the European lute. They enjoyed games like boxing, wrestling, and some form of polo. Mesopotamians were known to bury their dead in family graves along with their possessions. The political history of the Sumerians was one of constant warfare, where each city-state would try to conquer and unify the other, but mostly failing in their efforts. Though it was eventually unified by Eannatum, the Sumerian King of Lagash for a short period, it was later conquered by the Akkadians, who survived for a few generations before being taken over by the Babylonians. EGYPT The Egyptian culture has about six thousand years of recorded history. Life here began along the banks of the river Nile. This place has a very rare geographical unity and also cultural unity. The Egyptian people even today feel proud about being a descendant of humankind who belonged to the earliest civilized community. Egypt was one of the earliest civilizations, which maintained such a distinctive and stable culture that it was powerful enough to later influence the cultures of Europe, the Middle East and the African countries. Most of the dynasties of the ancient Egyptians developed along the river Nile. A lot of importance was given to religion and many temples were built during this period, Karnak at Thebes was the greatest of the Egyptian temples. Ancient Egyptians were a firm believer in the afterlife and preserved the dead bodies with their possessions, this is the reason why people today know a great deal about ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians were the first to believe strongly in life after death. They build great tombs for their Pharaoh Kings, which contained everything that might be needed for their next life. During the period of the ‘Old Kingdom’ the cultural and political development of Ancient Egyptians reached its peak. The Egyptians were the first to develop plow and a system of writing. Hieroglyphics, a complex pictorial form of writing was developed, where simple pictures represented objects. Architecture reached its pinnacle during this time mainly due to the works of Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus, the creators of the three pyramids of Giza. The Egyptians were great sailors and shipbuilders. They predicted flood in the river Nile by learning to chart the heavens. They had physicians who prescribed healing remedies and also performed surgical operations in early times. A very strong centralized government flourished in Egypt, starting from 3150 B.C., when King Menes founded a unified kingdom, this later led to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for almost three thousand years. Like most of the other powerful empires, ancient Egypt also was weakened by invasions, until it was finally taken over by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. However, the most important times in the Egyptian history was the unification of the two lands which are the Black land of Delta and the Red land of Upper Egypt. The rules of the Bland land wore a red crown and the rulers of the Upper Egypt wore a white crown. After the unification of the two lands the pharaoh who ruled wore a crown which had both symbols which proved the unification. The chief God of this place was Horus. The later period which was the 664-323 B.C. includes the final period during which ancient Egypt functioned as an independent political entity. However, it was the socioeconomic system that the efficiency and flexibility which ensured success of the nation during all times. PERSIANS The Persian Empire also known as the Achaemenid Empire stretched from the Indus Valley in east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeast border of Greece. The Persian Empire was established by Cryus the Great in the 6th century B.C, followed by Cambyses II, his son, Cyrus II, Darius I, and Xerxes. Many great achievements were made during this time, the most important being the construction of a canal connecting the Nile River to the Red Sea. Persepolis, a kingdom of the Achaemenian times has some of the most famous architectural sights, with columns that reached as high as 7 to 10 ft. Ancient Persians are noted for the development of one of the oldest monotheistic religions, Zoroastrianism. Some of the later monotheistic religions like Judaism, Christianity and Islam have taken many of their teachings from this religion. Zoroastrianism is still in practice today, and many of the Iranian festivals still follow the Zoroastrianism calendar. The Arabs invaded the country in 651 and there were many changes in leadership, finally bringing to an end one of the greatest eras of all times. The Persian empire was said to be the first ones to make an attempt to govern on the basis of equality. That is they were the first ones to govern different racial groups giving equal rights and responsibilities to all. As long as the people paid their taxes the government did not interfere with the religion and religious beliefs of the people. In art, the Persians followed their predecessors, the Assyrians. Their most important works could be seen in their palace architecture. The art in the palace depicted hundreds of soldiers and courtiers bringing gifts to the king to mark the beginning of a new year. GREEKS Ancient Greece was called Hellas. The Greek civilization was thought to be the strongest in 500-400 B.C., after Greece colonized Cyprus, parts of Italy, Ukraine, and South of France. This era referred to as the ‘Golden Age” saw many great achievements. The city states of Athens and Sparta became great centers of art, learning and politics. Famous thinkers like Aristotle, Plato and Socrates lived during this period in Athens. The Ancient Greeks take the credit for being the first to give to the world the idea of democracy. Along with its development, the Greek civilization put forth particular emphasis on cultural values compared to other civilization. In the Greek periods political and cultural values depended on complex economic and social structure. The Greek heritage was in an indo-European culture. There were oral poems chanted to kings, which preserved the knowledge of gods and goddesses. This helped in the development of philosophies and ethical systems. In the 8th century B.C., the Greeks began to follow the Phoenician alphabets for writing their own language, this helped to create a new literary based era of civilization. In this method the alphabets were very easy to learn when compared with other forms of writing. The advancements in writing helped in developing trade by exchanging commercial information. This also enhanced their cultural life. It was at this time that the two great poems the Lliad and the Odyssey were written. It was during this time that a distinctive Greek art form began to emerge. The Greek temples were filled with the architectural work of Greek architects. It was the early Greek sculptors who first to move to realistic portrayals, including full profile portrays. It was after the 800 B.C. that the Greek politics began to revolve around the city-state unit, that is, a regional government would be centered in the city embrasing the agricultural lands as well. The city-state format brought about more intensity in political life. The Greek work “Poli” paved way for the word “Politics” to be coined. ROMAN EMPIRE Rome was founded by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. Rome was located in a place which was surrounded by rivers and was protected from invaders by the hills. The Civilization of Ancient Rome centered on the city of Rome along the Mediterranean Sea. The influence of Ancient Rome is astonishing, the Roman roads still cross Europe, the legal system of the Romans is still the model for many countries in Europe and Latin America and most important of all, its language Latin is the basis of many languages spoken today. The city of Rome had theatres, market places, functional sewers, libraries, shops, and gymnasiums. This period saw the construction of huge monuments like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. Roman paintings and portrait sculpture also gained importance during this period, and several examples of these are still found at Pompeii. Although the buildings in the Roman Empire appear to be basically Greek, they were more monumental. The modern western cultural was basically formed from the contributions made by the Roman culture. Traditionally, early Rome was ruled by kings who were elected by the people. The king’s executive power both civil and military was called the “Imperium.” The Imperium was conferred by a famous assembly which included arms-bearing citizens. The king would get advice from a group of nobles called as Senates. These Senators had a life-long tenure. Rome’s political growth followed a series of developments similar to that of Greeks. The history of Rome dates from 753 B.C. The span of more than a thousand years ended in 509 B.C. CATHOLIC CHURCH As most would agree, the Roman Catholicism was the spiritual force for the Western civilization. There are more Roman Catholics in the world than believers who follow other religious tradition. Its beliefs, practices, its history and its institutional structures are vital components in the cultural legacy. The institution of the papacy which exists today emerged from this century. Catholics believe that their Church was founded by Jesus Christ. The New Testament recorded Jesus’ activities and his teachings. The Catholic Church played a very vital role in the history and growth of Western Society. Its name became synonymous with many social services like schooling and medical care in many countries throughout the world. The Catholic Church in itself is a very complex institution. The cultural and political history of the western world has been greatly influenced by the Catholic Church. The efforts of the Church helped in putting an end to many social evils like female infanticide, slavery, polygamy and human sacrifice. The world of art, literature and music also owes a lot to the Church. It has made important contributions in cultivating the patronage of individual artists and sponsored many Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, who have created some of the most exquisite masterpieces in the world. MEDIEVAL EUROPE The medieval period is the longest major era in the European history. It is also a very complex era. The Medieval Europe was more primitive than that of Imperial Rome. The development of secular society was hindered by a society which was dominated by single, militant, and exclusive religion. The histories of the West give little attention to the medieval times. There were prominent cultural influences in the Medieval era. They were the old civilization of the Imperial Rome and Catholic influences. The old civilization of Imperial Rome left behind a powerful cultural footprint. The Church provided an ethical dimension that had moral values as a main dominator. This was not found in other classical societies. The Medieval Europe replaced the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome and was thought to be much more complex. It emerged from the ruins of the Western Roman Empire. Life was much more primitive and there were some uncivilized elements, which revered authority and prevented the development of a secular society. The medieval era is a long period in the European history. There are many phases in this long era namely pre-Christian antecedents, early Christians, Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic periods. The Medieval period is not just a time period but a period of consciousness. THE RENAISSANCE The last century of the medieval era is generally seen as the beginning of the Renaissance, meaning ‘rebirth’ in French. It was at this time that Europe emerged from the Feudal system of the Medieval Ages. The economic growth of Europe began to improve slowly, emerging stronger, and facilitating enormous changes in social, political, cultural, scientific and artistic endeavors. Cities grew and prospered during the Renaissance and rulers learned to ask people to pay tax. It was during this time that trade between two countries and cities grew rapidly. There were many new ideas that came up in trade which inturn improved trade. The Renaissance is being said to have first started in Italy. This was because of the perfect location, that is, between the Western Europe and the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Italian cities became major cities for trade. The wealth gained during this time helped to sustain political and social changes that came into existence during this period. Humanism and its study of classical writing of the past had an indirect impact upon science during the Renaissance. It was during this period that Plato’s work paved the way to a new concept that mathematics could answer many questions about the universe. The experimentation and acceptance of results had a great influence on science when compared to past times where just abstract ideas were accepted as truths. The Renaissance time was filled with scholastic thinkers who helped in scientific advancements. Renaissance is best known for its achievements in art, science, literature, and music. It was during this period that artists became more important and were highly regarded. It was during this time that painters began to depict the natural world. They used new techniques to depict landscapes, portraits, and various other scenes from day to day life. As most of the people moved to cities, their interest in arts increased. Renaissance attitudes and philosophy had a very great authority on the progress of literature. Reference “The Dynamic Culture of the Middle Ages”, n.d. Available at http://history-world.org/dynamic_culture_of_medieval_euro.htm. Read More