Horses in Han Dynasty China - Research Paper Example

? The Governor’s Palace, Williamsburg: The Formation of Colonial American Architecture Depiction of the Horse on Han Dynasty Tombs A glimpse on Chinese ancient civilization presents a long history of the role played by the horse in architecture. A deeper analysis reveals that the horse played critical roles in core aspects of the people’s lives. However, one wonders why horse carvings and sculptures were a common feature of the Han dynasty? The depiction of the horse on the tombs translates to a critical role that the horse played in the afterlife. A superficial view of the issue may assume that the horse was just an additional object that accompanied the dead to the afterlife. However, a deeper analysis of the religious set-up of the Han dynasty provides highlights on the critical role played by the horse in guiding and protecting people in the afterlife. This paper will analyze the belief system of the Han dynasty and the attributes of people whose tombs had horse carvings. History and Religion of the Han Dynasty The Han dynasty emerged in 207 B.C.E as a successor of the Qin dynasty. The Han dynasty found a united Chinese society from the efforts of its immediate predecessor. This dynasty lasted for the longest time in China thriving in unity. However, the dynasty faced a division in the years that followed. Initially, the western Han had political strength. Upon its collapse, the eastern side rose to take its place. The Han dynasty had an intense culture and architectural designs evident from archeological and historical evidence. The society practiced agriculture and the war. In addition, history reveals that the society domesticated horses. The people of the Han dynasty had strong beliefs about life beyond death.1 The people reasoned that each individual had two parts of the soul. One was the body that remained in the tomb after death and the spirit-soul that joined the spirit world. The Han religion adhered to the belief of immortality of the spirit in the afterlife. In order to reconnect the body and the immortal soul, the people performed rituals. The emperor conducted all the religious functions, offered sacrifices, and served as the intermediate between the people and the deities.2 According to the Han dynasty, the people believed that the heavens, earth, and humankind existed in a cycle.3 The emperor represented the people politically and religiously. In the ritual ceremonies that sought to unite the dead bodies with the immortal spirits, people offered sacrifices. The people opined that sacrificial goods were critical because they would be useful in the afterlife. The dead received a decent and well-designed burial tomb, an honorable place where they could spend their eternity. Attempts of Describing the Tomb Architecture Different reserchers have tried to unravel the relevance of the horse. The mausoleum of an emperor played the role of his palace in the afterlife. The horse was one of the common sculptures in most of the tombs.The people associatedthe horse with the potential of guiding the deceased emperor in the journey towards the next phase of life. Just as a horse would guide and protect an emperor in real life, the Han dynasty believed that the horse had the power to do the same in the spirit world. An emperor going to the next life without a horse would lack a basic aspect in the next world. In addition, horses were the symbols of wealth and power in the afterlife just as they were among the living.4 The Han dynasty mausoleums had details of a complete palace with different rooms designated to palace servants such as guards, dancers, cooks, and the burial chambers.5 The structures had detailed the architecture and the construction took a long time. The people’s beliefs and convictions of life after death compelled society to give up some people for servitude in the spirit world. However, in the Han dynasty, carvings replaced the sacrifice of people. Mausoleums proved to be places of great significance for the Chinese people. From the archeological records of excavated mausoleums, it becomes evident that the Han Dynasty structures and buildings portray intricate architecture.6 The historical records available provide substantial evidence of the factors that inspired architecture during that period. From the analysis of archeological and anthropological studies, it becomes evident that the horse played a central role in architecture.7 As it is expected in any society, architecture is a form of art that reveals other aspects the society. Cultural, political, and economical aspects of society exert a form of influence on the architecture of any society. The Han dynasty exhibited an advanced form of architecture contrary to preceding dynasties. Historical records mention it as a long lasting dynasty that presented unique features from the rest of the dynasties in ancient China because of its political, religious, economical aspects. The horse was of crucial significance in all sectors of life. History has tried to trace how the horse assumed a central role in the life of the people. Although, these studies have limitations, they offer substantial evidence that ancient China had a close association with the horse. A typical appearance of the Han dynasty mausoleum composed of numerous horse carvings (Figure 1). The Han dynasty belongs to a part of uncivilized societies that depicted a high degree of innovation.8 This has its justification in the fact that training of the horse to perform advanced functions. Transforming the horse for use in cavalry cost the people effort and time. It is for these reasons that the horse appears in all architectural forms of the time. It proves impossible to describe the architecture without reference to culture. For the Han dynasty, it proves a challenge to describe the architecture without reference to the role of the horse because of its central function. Case Studies of Han Dynasty Mausoleums Liu Sheng Mausoleum One of the excavated mausoleums belongs to Liu Sheng, one of the sons of emperor Jing Di who ruled western Han dynasty (Figure 2). Since the Liu Sheng lived a princely life, the reflection of his social standing is very inherent in his mausoleum.9 Archeologists describe the tomb as an after world palace because of its intricate design. Historians probing into the Han dynasty have proposed that it is probable that many laborers spend a remarkable time in the construction of his tomb. The tomb, carved from limestone rock, lies in a mountain peak. The mausoleum appears a series of tomb chambers with brick walls on the entrance. The mausoleum comprises of a central chamber where burial ceremonies and ancestral sacrifices occurred. There were several chambers and rooms before one got to the prince’s chamber constructed with stone and surrounded by walkways symbolic of the paths followed by spirits in the spirit world. Inside his burial chamber, the Han people brought everything that they perceived the prince would require to find utility in the world that followed.10 The arrangement revealed that the mausoleum represented the transition between earthly life and life in the immortal world.11 The people believed that the transition involved a journey to the immortal world. The prince’s send off was honorable as the sacrificial goods present in the tomb revealed. The people send him off with his prized possessions symbolizing his status in the immortal world. The prince’s treasured possession lay very close to the burial chamber while other possessions symbolizing daily life necessities were in close proximity to the tomb chambers. The most critical feature was the animal sacrifices that accompanied an emperor or any member of the royal family to the after world. Archeology reveals that there were horses, deers and dogs in the prince’s mausoleum. The horse was a critical symbol in the Prince’s tomb chamber as it symbolized the political, social, and military status of the prince before death. In this tomb, horses and chariots served as evidence that the prince had power and prowess in military. The horses and chariots defined cavalrymen who had expertise in war. The Tomb of Huo Qubing and Emperor Wudi Emperor Wudi led the war between Han and Hun dynasties. This came after the great advancements in the economy and extensive training of horses for war. The Han dynasty declared war on the Hun. Through the competence of General Huo Qubing, and possession of multiple warhorses, Han dynasty defeated the challenging Hun dynasty. In order to grant state burial to the general who had contributed immensely to the victory of the people, the king ordered for the construction of a special burial place. The dynasty built the Maoding Mausoleum, a structure acted as a pioneer of future mausoleums (Figure 3). In addition, 16 explicit sculptures appeared in front of the General’s tomb. Among these sculptures, there was the sculpture of a horse denoting the horse that had given the general the potential of trampling on the Hun dynasty. This carving was a pioneer of the detailed architecture and landscape paintings of horses that would emerge in the years that followed. The carving measured up to 1.68 by 1.9 meters. This stone carving of the horse held great symbolism. It depicted the image of the quality breeds of horses that had the potential to destroy the enemy. Underneath the horse was a small image of a human being, symbolizing the Hun soldiers who had been defeated bin the war. The general’s chamber lie in the emperor’s mausoleum because the emperor believed that he would rejoin him as they travelled in the paths to immortality in the next world. Emperor Wudi’s ‘Heavenly Horses’ Emperor Wudi mentioned above, sought to introduce the best breed of horses in the han Dynasty.12 There was an urgency to for finding horses that could have the resilience to stand the adverse conditions of war and bear heavy luggage. The Han dynasty was lucky to discover a certain breed of horses from the Ferghanabasin in the central part of Asia. This breed proved itself worthy to perform the functions described with expertise and this was the reason why Emperor Wudi ordered for more of these horses into his territory. Historical records use very positive adjectives to describe this breed of horses. The breed proved itself superior over other breeds that had existed in Han before the arrival of the Ferghana breed. After a short period of training these horses, the people found pleasure in their resilience. The adoption of the new breed was a landmark event in the Han dynasty because the prowess of the horse would translate to multiple benefits to the people. The horse was of a bigger size surpassing the original breeds in Han dynasty (Figure 6). In addition, it possessed stamina and speed that was remarkable qualifying it for diverse functions. The new breed of horses became a symbol of prestige among the Han dynasty royals because of the qualities it possessed. The breed received a new name in the dynasty because of the resilience and endurance that it was proving to possess both in transport and war. The emperor Wudi designated the name ‘heavenly horses’ for the foreign breed. In the opinion of the majority of the people in the Han dynasty, this horses were enigmas of divine powers.13 Often, they manifested red foam on their skin, a factor that earned them a new name ‘blood-sweating horses’. The new title denoted the mixture of sweat and blood inherent on the skin of these horses. Scientists have highlighted that the blood and sweat resulted from a disease. The heavenly horse proved to be critical animals in the empire with royals having great admiration for these horses. As illustrated below, the horse had physical attributes and a spirit that accounted for the admiration it received (Figures 4 and 5). Its importance extended even beyond earthly life to the immortal world. The powerful horse became a defining sacrifice for emperors as they sojourned to the spirit world. Archeologists have unearthed evidences of these horses from mausoleums of royals entities in the Han society. The Mausoleum of Emperor Wudi This emperor spend more than a half-century preparing for his tomb chamber and this gives a hint of the intensity of the details of the mausoleum that resulted in the end. Heavenly horse sculptures formed one of the characteristics that make his tomb site stand out among the rest. Archeologists working on the excavation of regions surrounding the tomb revealed more than eighty remains of heavenly horses. As DNA tests come into place to identify the breed of the horses, it becomes evident that heavenly horses defined the prestige of emperor Wudi and that is why his send off included large number of those horses. In addition, the tomb of Li Shimin had unique adorations of horse carvings because he left a mark in history for the expertise and competence in war that he portrayed after succeeding his father. Due to his prowess, he waged war with neighboring dynasties like his predecessors. When he qualified to become the emperor of the dynasty, he ordered for the institution of six horse carvings that would reflect his successive victory in war. Among these carvings, there was a representation of the purple Saluzi horse, which had received arrow injuries in the battlefield (Figure 8). It also depicted the Qiu Xing gong, as he tried to rid the animal of the arrow, a venture rendered the horse dead. The emperor intended to retell the story through architecture.14 The six stone sculptures became the defining features of the Qiu Xing Xang mausoleum. Li Shimin became a pioneer in celebrating his war expertise with the steeds on his mausoleum. The Role of Horses in Temple Architecture In the eastern Han dynasty, a new religion emerged that replaced the existing religious beliefs of the people, but the roles of the horse remained evident. The emperor invited Buddhist monks from India into the empire.15 In appreciation of the horses that facilitated the transport of the monks to the Han dynasty, the emperor gave orders for the construction of a temple named ‘white horses temple’. In addition to the name, there were horse sculptures outside the temple.16 This presents a new perspective of the influence of the horses in the architecture of the Han dynasty. Following the emperor’s example, the Han religion adopted the horse as a central definition of the temple architecture.17 The horse sculptures are made of stone and their appearance creates an illusion that can easily pass for the reality. The quality of the images serves to depict the level of architecture in that day and age (Figure 7). Conclusion Without doubt, the roles played by the horse in the Han dynasty accounts for the significant appearance of horse images in palaces, mausoleums, tomb chambers, and temples. The horse performed fundamental roles in agriculture, transport, and war in the Han society. Archeological and historical records have provided sufficient evidence that of the effects of the horse on architecture in that day. As described, horse carvings in mausoleums were a symbol of royalty or expertise in war. The intricate architecture of mausoleums had its basis on the fact that the people believed in the continuity of life. In addition, the horse had the potential to provide protection and guidance in the after life. Bibliography Baskett, John. The horse in art. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006. Cosmo, Nicola. “Han frontiers: Toward an Integrated View.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 129, no. 2 (2009): 199-214. Cotter, Holland. “Review/Art; Pleasures From Life, Extended Into the Tomb.” New York Times, May 14, 1993, 539-542. Goldin, Paul. “The Motif of the Woman in the doorway and related imagery in traditional chinese funerary art.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 121, no. 4 (2001): 539-549. Honour, Hugh, and John Fleming. A world history of art London: Laurence King, 2005. Huo, Jiannying. “Anecdotes of Horses and their masters”. China Today. April 2009. Kao, Stephen. “Exploring the mountain Mausoleum of Prince Liu Sheng of Zhongshan.” Chinese Archeology, June 2002, 2-3. “They took it with them: Treasures from the Han dynasty.” The Economist [US] 4 Aug. 2012, 76. Wallace, Leslie. “Representations of Falcony in Eastern Han China.” Journal of Sport History, 39, no. 1 (2012): 99-109. Yiping, Zhang. Story of the Silk Road, Translated by Jia Zongyi. [Beijing]: China Intercontinental Press, 2005. Appendices Figure 1 Diagram showing a Typical Mausoleum Reproduced from http://www.pnclink.org/pnc2009/english/PresentationMaterial/Oct08/08-Rm4-AncientChina1/1520-08-AncientChina-ppt-LiJiajun.pdf Figure 2 The Liu Sheng Mausoleum Reproduced from http://www.google.co.ke/imgres?imgurl=http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/archae/2zcwcarc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/archae/tliumain.htm&h=331&w=468&sz=48&tbnid=K8vx8B7d5Tkg3M:&tbnh=86&tbnw=122&zoom=1&usg=__KcvSWMH6Qt8FzPUq0RM6b9uXqZw=&docid=MBlZlBfBxum5pM&sa=X&ei=2ze4UNW9IM2srAeG2oGoCA&ved=0CDQQ9QEwAQ&dur=378 Figure 3 Depiction of the Horse in Wudi’s Tomb Reproduced from http://www.google.co.ke/imgres?imgurl=http://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/01/47/1f/da/tomb-of-emperor-wudi.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.tripadvisor.com/LocationPhotos-g298557-d507044-Tomb_of_Emperor_Wudi_Maoling-Xi_an_Shaanxi.html&h=412&w=550&sz=32&tbnid=3bdqr0mRWh6llM:&tbnh=91&tbnw=121&zoom=1&usg=__oq-Ni_3KcSHaLJaevgwnzADhVrQ=&docid=ER7iux9uP_3SNM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=vja4UKqXLsf4rQfdnYCwCw&ved=0CC4Q9QEwAA&dur=347 Figure 4 Heavenly Horse Representation Reproduced from http://artsmia.org/education/teacher-resources/fivefacts_d.cfm?p=4&v=132 Figure 5 The Galloping Heavenly Horse Reproduced from http://www.google.co.ke/imgres?imgurl=http://www.visitourchina.com/images/fileUpload/100524115849524.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.visitourchina.com/guide/leitai_ancient_tomb_of_han_dynasty.htm&h=388&w=471&sz=84&tbnid=oI31qiQ6jt3-wM:&tbnh=96&tbnw=116&zoom=1&usg=__GNcmlld7duNS-omvrgjfUe3muxM=&docid=XqxZpGspwQysLM&sa=X&ei=2Oe4UMCnB4rirAeLj4HoAg&ved=0CGEQ9QEwDw&dur=863 Figure 6 Depiction of a Cavalryman Reproduced from http://www.google.co.ke/imgres?imgurl=http://www.trocadero.com/minggallery/items/715872/catphoto.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.trocadero.com/stores/minggallery/items/715872/item715872.html&h=285&w=263&sz=14&tbnid=9bb3weVhjedr8M:&tbnh=100&tbnw=92&zoom=1&usg=__zxed8ee96yycfmdBoTicVwTBCFg=&docid=_nK7PCavFlJ0sM&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Pem4UMyNIoPsrAeSvYCQCg&ved=0CGUQ9QEwEA&dur=56 Figure 7 Depiction of the Horse on Temples where Burial Rituals Occurred Reproduced from http://www.google.co.ke/imgres?imgurl=http://www.hotelstravelpal.com/Asia/Asia%2520East/China/Images/White_Horse_Temple_1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.hotelstravelpal.com/Asia/Asia%2520East/China/Destinations/Luoyang.htm&h=600&w=800&sz=100&tbnid=9z5LGpAGSvFn0M:&tbnh=90&tbnw=120&zoom=1&usg=__stZh7XwmfLuEJOF5GY6aeeii9I0=&docid=3inkQYISefPAiM&sa=X&ei=S_OlUOXnBoTChAfWl4DoDw&ved=0CGkQ9QEwDA&dur=576 Figure 8 Purple Saluzi Horse found at Li Shimin Tomb Retrieved from Huo Jiannying, “Anecdotes of Horses and their masters,” China Today (April 2009): 70. 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