School of Social Science and Public Policy. Case Studies in Policy Decision - Essay Example

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School of Social Science and Public Policy: Case Studies in Policy Decisions of Affiliate Institution] [Date of Submission] Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………..…………………………3 2.0 English Smoking Ban…………………………………………….……………………….4 2.1 Policy process………………………………………………….………………….4 2.2 Case Analysis…………………..…………………………………………..5 3.0 Seat Belt Legislation………………………………..……………………………………..6 3.1 Adoption of the Legislation in the United Kingdom…………………………….6 3.2 Shortcomings of Seat Belt Legislation……………………….………………….7 3.3 Case Analysis………………………………………………………………………8 4.0 The TSR-2 Project………………….…………………………………………………….9 4.1 Case Study Analysis…………………………………………………………….10 5.0 The Hydrogen Bomb………………………………………..……………………………11 5.1 Effects on the US Foreign Policy………………………………………..……..12 5.2 Implication of the US Military Strategy…………………………………..…….13 5.3 Case Analysis…………………………………………………………………….13 6.0 Hurricane Katrina………………………………………………………….…………………………14 6.1 Disaster Response and Management Policies………………………………14 6.2 Case Analysis………………………………………………………………………15 7.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….16 1.0 Introduction Public policy essentially refers to the processes and strategies adopted by a government in response to a generalized problem affecting the masses (Gerston, 2010, p.22). Public policies emanate from the complex interaction of institutions, legislations and organizations. According to Gerston (2010, p.3), the politics accompanying the process of policy formulation is mostly characterized by “confusion, contradictions and consternation.” Other aspects that impact on policies are issues such as advocay, path dependency and bureaucracy. Inter-American Development Bank (2010, p.203) explains that the integrity, adaptability, sustainability and applicability of public policy depends on how the policies are presented, debated and implemented. Policies go through the stages of formulation, implementation and effect (Wilson, 1997, p.12). For successful outcome policies must put into consideration four aspects; needs of the population, the opportunities available, challenges and applicability within a given environment. These issues are better conceptualized by learning through case studies. Case studies bridge the gap between theory and practice and allow students to simulate the processes of policy formulation, implementation and effect and some to the challenges and gaps that might be encountered. 2.0 English Smoking Ban The English Smoking ban was introduced after studies revealed that passive smokers were at risk of developing lung cancer just like first hand smokers. The policy issue in this case was that non-smokers were continually being placed at a risk of developing health problems as a result of passive smoking (Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Acute Coronary Events, 2010, p.32). The problem became a policy issue and there was a dire need to protect non-smokers from the dangers of passive smoking. For instance, studies by Hirayama 1984 and Trichopoulos in 1981 established that there were serious health risks associated with passive smoking (Lippmann, 2011, p.723). Consequently, passive smoking became labelled publicly as a health risk and a nuisance. From the evidence gathered there is a clear indication that passive smoking was placing non-smokers at a risk. 2.1 Policy Process The major policy makers are the legislators who have the mandate to introduce bills in parliament that can be enacted into law to bring about certain changes in the society (Adolino, 2010, p.135). The Labor Party had been sensitive to research trends and realized that it could use a ban on cigarrette smoking as one of its highlights during campaigns. During an age where people dread cancer, it is very easy to sway votes on one side just by introducing a partial solution that can reduce the number of cancer cases reported. The process of decision making followed the gathering of knowledge based evidence to ascertain whether there was a real risk. The risk here was established to be not only the danger that passive smoking poses to non-smokers but also the risk of cigarrette smoking to smokers. The issue of non-smokers was particularly aproached with diligence because there was no way that they were being compensated for the risks posed to them through the smokers (Ney, 2010, p.35). Despite the fact that policy makers are the major decision makers during the process of formulating public policies, the policy makers are usually very keen on the public sentiments surrounding an issue. That public policies are influenced by politics is a fact. According to Anderson (2010, 63), public opinion has the capacity to shift political alignments and voter dynamics. Anderson goes on to outline that even in “authoritarian regimes” public opinion will always be an important consideration if only to keep opposition down. In essence, the sentiments of the public is an important political tool to gain popularity even in non-democratic environments. In recent years opinion polls have become important source of information for policy makers because they give the policy makers a generalized view of the public sentiments (Dautrich, 2009, p.309). The general realization is that policy makers use public sentiments to determine the stance they will take with regard to a contentious issue. The implementation of a partial ban brought into perspective what Carrin (2010), refers to as “wicked problems.” Such problems are usually very complex and instead of policy makers tackling them with integrity, they look for a way to compromise. Banning of cigarette is bound to reduce revenues from tobacco companies and social places such as bars. However, a complete ban would be fatal to the tobacco companies and bars. In a bid to avoid creating enemies within the lucrative tobacco industry the poloicy makers opted to impose a partial ban which would ensure that tobacco companies still made money and the public was happy. 2.2 Case Analysis The case analysis of the England Tobacco ban is improtant in highlighting some important issues that trigger or influence the initiation of the policy formulation process and subsequently policy implemntation and outcome. The trigger must be a national issue that affect a huge population. In addition, the government does not fully own policies because we see the citizens influencing the law makers and other stakeholder such as tobacco companies also influencing law makers. 3.0 Seat Belt Legislation Since 1970 when the state of Victoria in Australia reduced the accident percentage by close to 40, most countries in the west have adopted legislations that require automobile users to wear seatbelts. Victoria wa able to attain the reduction in accidents just within 4 years. In 1965 the EEC made it compulsory for all vehicles to be fitted with seat belts and the US followed in 1968 by making it compulsory for vehicles to be fitted with seat belts (Irwin, 1985, p.153). Studies by RoSPA in 2003 in the UK indicated that seatbelts had saved 20,000 lives since 1988. Studies outline that seat belts have the capacity to reduce the chances of death by 40-91 percent depending on the type of accident. However, the general realization is that seat belts actually transfer the risk of death to pedestrians and cyclists (Kleinig, 2004, 103). 3.1 Adoption of the Legislation in the UK Seat belt legislations were followed by the popularization of the fact that seat belts were able to reduce the number of accidents in Victoria Australia. However, further studies have since indicated that legislations that actually make seat belts usage compulsory are actually just transferring the risk but not dealing with the real issue (Hardman, 2009, p.153). Legislations are developed from public policies triggered through the realization of a public policy issue. The public policy issue in this case was the increase in motor vehicle accidents that lead to deaths and injuries. The Australian success prompted other western countries to adopt the same strategy in dealing with the ever increasing accidents. The theory was that when seat belts legislations were enforced then people would be compelled to wear seat belts and the number of accidents would reduce significantly. However, the policy makers just centered their decisions on the motorists and passgenger without considering that there were other road users who could be affected by such legislations (Walley, 2010, p.296). Furthermore, the legislations made no attempt to educate motorists on the importance of seat belts and the proper use of seat belts.The surprising fact is that the legislators did enact the laws aware of the fact that investigations were pending concerning the effect of seat belts on road accidents (Carpenter, 2007, p.10). 3.2 Shortcomings of the Seat Belt Legislations As outlined in the introduction, integrity and sustainability of policies are very important in determining the effectiveness of the policies in dealing with policy issues. The general realization is that in the UK the legislators did not take time to study factors that influenced the success registered in Victoria with seat belts. Instead the legislators just adopted the seat belt legislations using previous conducted evidences. The existence of gap between theory and practice was evident with regard to the implementation of the seat belt legislation (Paul, 1998, p.23). The seatbelts had proven effective in Australia and they were only applicable theoretically in UK. In addition, studies with seatbelts had only began and there were high chances that some important issues might have been overlooked (Dorn, 2008, p.103). Policy makers are not usually the professionals in fields where they formulate guiding policies. Policy makers only use the advice and evidence provided them by the professionals. However, when it comes to implementation of policies the policy makers might opt for remedies that are popular with the citizens or that they deem popular with the citizens (Pettenger, 2007, p.38). 3.3 Case Analysis The case study has brought out an important aspect of using case studies in studying public policy. The formulation of policies does not actively involve professionals. Although the law makers are base their decisions on the findings of studies, they are usually not able to ensure successful outcomes due to the inability to employ a multi-dimensional evaluation. As one seeks to connect the relationship between policy formulation and implementation there an evident gap between theory and practice. Through the simulation of case studies one can easily follow up the processes and identify areas of discontinuity. 4.0 The TSR-2 Project The TSR-2 case is perhaps a perfect example of the complexity of issues pertaining to public policies. The project touched the economic, foreign and military policy of Britain and the country found itself in a dilemma as it became impossible to do away with project at a time when there was the realization that it was poorly researched and too expensive a project. As the details about the project became more complex, cracks began to emerge that prompted some policy makers to consider abandoning the project altogether (Segell, Weapons Procurement in Phase Considerations, 1998, p.40). However, foreign policy issues prevented Britain from abandoning a once promising project because it could have been interpreted as a sign of weakness. In looking at the procedures followed in estimating the cost of producing the TSR-2 planes there is the realization that budgeting was a major problem. The budgeting process might have been a bad note to begin a project of this caliber, but one still needs to understand that the project was fairly new and the details were still hazy. The BAC Company gave the government a fairly good deal of ? 625 million but the government’s final offer stood at ? 620 million. The general realization is that there were many problems that had already been associated with the project other than the cost that influenced its final cancellation (Segell, 1997, p.144). The over-politicization and concentration on the problems overshadowed the long term economic benefits of the project. For instance, the fact that the Australians opted for the America F111 did not imply that they were not ready to buy the TSR-2. TSR-2 was superior technologically and maybe the Australians wanted a better deal with better terms (Williams, 1988, p.186). For instance, the Australians could have been allowed to test the TSR-2 using their own pilots in British Soil. The TSR-2 project also happened at a time when the government had placed strict regulations governing military expenditure. In addition, the bureaucracy created by the Ministry of Defense and Ministry of Supplies presented numerous challenges for the project at different stages; these factors only magnified the already evident skeptism surrounding the project. The government was looking at the amount of revenue that would be immediately saved and perhaps channeled in other areas instead of concentrating on the long term benefits of the project. In addition, the number of jobs that would have been lost upon cancellation of the project would have had long term negative impact on Britain’s economy (Schultz, 1999, p.210). The major problem with the TSR-2 project might have been the huge budget, but poor planning, forecasting and budgetary procedures worked against the project. The perception that the whole process created was that the project was too costly and better alternatives could be negotiated. Britain had for a long time lagged behind in technology in comparison with the many past great inventions that the country boasted of. The TSR-2 could have changed the overall perception of Britain’s technological might especially in the military arena. In the background there was a silent competition among nations in terms of technological advancements that subtly determined the veto power of these nations in international issues. The project had already been publicized and the developed nations were keenly looking at the move Britain would take with the project. In addition, the technologies used to build the TSR-2 probably had leaked to other nations who would be ready to carry on with the project in the instance that Britain called it quits. 4.1 Case Analysis The TSR-2 case study reveals a major problem that might sometimes be encountered when attempting to deal with a policy issue that is complex and is for preventive rather than tackling an issue at hand. Every detail concerning such a policy issue is based on perception and expectation. The situation is complicated especially when adequate research has not been conducted. The importance of case study in this perspective is that it allows for the connection between policy formulation, implementation and outcome. 5.0 The Hydrogen Bomb The development of the Hydrogen bomb by the United States also outlines the role played by politics in the development and implementation of public policies. At the height of the Cold War, the US and the USS had been preoccupied by arming themselves and flexing their military muscles in the military arena. These undertakings were geared towards instilling fear and proving to the world the side that had the best weapons in a bid to lure allies. Surprisingly, the Cold War was never fought directly between the US and the USSR because it mostly involved the allies. The building of the hydrogen bomb by the US was part of the many strategies used by the capitalist US and the communist USSR (Cantelon, 1991, p.128). A look at the facts surrounding the Cold War ascertains the claim that the bomb was a case of misguided and ill researched public policy. A number of issues emerged and a look at each of the issues individually indicates that the reasons provided were not strong enough to warrant such an expensive venture. Furthermore, the bomb complicated issues pertaining to foreign policy. 5.1 Effect on US Foreign Policy The Cold War period was characterized by the USSR and the US taking approaches to strengthen their military might. The MAD (Mutual Assured Destruction) concept was coined as a strategy to prevent a looming war between the two countries. The concept could only function when the there existed mutual fear between the countries and that could only be achieved when each nation armored itself with the massive and advanced weapons. The US concentrated on quality while the USSR mainly concentrated on quantity. However, the two countries still looked keenly at each other for new developments. According to Edward Teller, the weapon was a strategy that would further consolidate the objectives of MAD in preventing the two nations from starting a war probably the Third World War. However, what Teller did not put into consideration was the danger that the existence of such a weapon would place humanity in case the weapon of the technology fell into the hands of some rogue leader or a terrorist group (Teller, 2008, p.73). Internationally, other countries began to look at the US and the USSR with much suspicion considering the possible effects of the weapon. In essence, the response by the US to build a hydrogen bomb after the USSR successfully built an atomic bomb was actually counterproductive. This is because the US foreign policy was tarnished due to the sentiments expressed with regard to such weapons especially after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombing of 1945 (Mayers, 1990, p.83). The perception of politicians was that when America possessed such a weapon the citizens might feel much safer. However, a critical analysis implies that the politicians were once again driven to give a false sense of security to the citizens whereas ignoring the dangers that such a weapon could pose for world peace and US foreign policy. 5.2 Implications on US Military Strategy Looking at the action of the US to build a hydrogen bomb as a military strategy also reveals some fatal miscalculations by the US policy makers. Initially when the US built the 1st atomic bomb the nation felt much safer knowing that it was in the possession of the most destructive weapon. Therefore, the perception was that no nation especially the USSR would risk going into war with the US. However, when the Soviet Union managed to make an atomic bomb things changed and the US once more felt vulnerable (Hilsman, 1999, p.23). To quell the fears that was spreading in the nation, the US decided to embark on the construction of a more destructive weapon; the hydrogen bomb. However, there was every reason to believe that the USSR would soon get hold of the technology and perhaps build an even deadlier weapon (Hans, 1954). Therefore, the construction of a hydrogen bomb by the US was only a momentary solution to a perennial problem (Hershberg, 2011, p.467). Furthermore, antiwar sentiments within the US nation had begun to see the actual implications of the strategy and opposition was building up within. 5.3 Case Study Analysis The revisiting of the issue of hydrogen bomb case study brings out the alternative actions that might have been taken and that might have been effective. Learning about these alternatives and engaging in the subsequent discourses nurtures the tendency to critically evaluate when dealing with public policy. 6.0 Hurricane Katrina Natural disasters have been just as destructive and instilling fear just like acts of terrorism. President Bush identified natural disasters and acts of terrorism as requiring adequate preparedness to mitigate the damaging effects in case they occurred. However, the response of the US government with regard to Hurricane Katrina demonstrates the inability of the current disaster management policies to adequately respond to reduce human suffering in case of a natural disaster (Hoffman, 2007, p.10). After Hurricane Katrina, President Bush ordered for the compiling of a report to identify areas of weakness with regard to disaster response and management policies. 6.1 Disaster Response and Management Policies There is the general realization that the tendency of the American Federal government to assume autonomy of the individual states is a good political and democratic arrangement that has functioned for centuries. However, when it comes to disaster response there is the need to create an approach that allows for speedy federal assistance to be accorded to the individual states during disaster. During the Hurricane Katrina the Federal government only intervened when it was apparent that the local and state governments had been overwhelmed by the Hurricane. When the Federal government intervened, the magnitude of damage to property and loss of lives had already reached alarming levels (Cooper, 2007, p.109). The Hurricane caused significant damage to the state and local communities that was placed at $96 billion. Although the damage was centered on the affect states, the effects were felt nationally with regard to increased gas prices. An area of great loophole with regard to public policies tackling disaster management is in the declaration of a national disaster. The guidelines provided within the Incidents of National Significance (INS) indicates that for a incident to be declared a national disaster a federal agency or department must request the secretary for assistance, the local and state resources must have been overwhelmed prompting the local and state authorities to request for assistance, more than one federal agency must have been involved in the incident substantially or the president can issue a directive to the secretary to declare a disaster as an INS (Miskel, 2008). These guidelines are rather vague and do not put consideration on speed disaster management or even prevention. The guidelines only function to delay response by the Federal government (Brasch, 2005, p.87). Such a delay in a disaster of the magnitude of Hurricane Katrina can lead to an increase in damages that would have otherwise been prevented. The fact that the State governments should maintain semi-autonomy is more of a political and governance issue. However, when it comes to disaster response and management a system should be created where the Federal government is allowed to mobilize all natural resources to assist the affected areas. Prior to Hurricane Katrina there were other Hurricanes although not of the same magnitude. There could have at least been a comprehensive plan to respond to such disasters. According to the report submitted to President Bush, there was the realization that a lot more could have been done if there was a comprehensive response plan and procedure. Despite the fact that there were resources enough to assist the victims of the Hurricane it was only afterwards that the disaster was declared national and Federal assistance provided. 6.3 Case Analysis The Hurricane Katrina case study brings out the dynamics that characterize policy issues and policy formulation implementation and outcome in a real life historical situation. As one goes through the case study these issues and the circumstances in which they occur become more real. 7.0 Conclusion The analysis of the various historical events has provided insight on the importance of public policies. Public policies are relevant in responding to public issues. Unlike personal issues public issues are aimed at dealing with problems that affect a large section of the citizens and that are beyond the scope of individuals. In essence, governments have had the responsibility of structuring policies in response to policy issues. In some instances, governments structure policies that can deal with these issues even before they actually occur. Looking at the specific responses one realizes that most policies are driven by politics, poorly researched and the response strategies are not sustainable in dealing with policy issues. The imposition of smoking ban in England initially took a political approach after politicians realized that it was an issue that evoked public sentiments. The victory by the labor party in 2005 is evidence enough to demonstrate the weight of the issue. The seatbelt legislation also took a political approach after politicians quickly advocated for the implementation of seatbelt legislation without waiting for substantial studies to be conducted. The TSR-2 project and the hydrogen bombs projects were also poorly researched and marred in politics with politicians seeking political mileage using the issues presented. The Hurricane Katrina though not significantly politicized demonstrated the inability of politicians to come up with effective policies to deal with emerging policy issues. The response was delayed and as a result human suffering was escalated. The general realization is that the structuring of policies should be left to professional institutions that can carry the process with utmost integrity and professionalism using research based evidence. Reference List Adolino, J. R., 2010, Comparing Public Policies: Issues and Choices in Industrilized World, London: Sage. Anderson, J. E., 2010, Public Policy Making: An Introduction, Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Brasch, W. M., 2005, Unacceptable: The Federal Reponse to Hurricane Katrina, New York: Book Surge. Cantelon, P. L., 1991, The American Atom: A Documentary History of Nuclear Policies from the Discovery of Fission to the Present, New York: Sage. Carpenter, C. 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