The Middle Class in Urban Britain 1780-1900 - Essay Example

?Running head: formation in Britain between 1780 and 1900 Introduction The world has been the stage for constant change. In the 19th century, the invention of the steam engine was referred to as being an act of exquisite ingenuity. All the inventions that have occurred in human history have been greatly influenced and have in turn influenced the way that people live their lives. The most remarkable thing is that people work tirelessly in order to wield the very inventions that they have conjured in their times. The picture painted is one of people whoa re working towards and end that they do not know. However, in all these upheavals, there has always been the cream of the society that has had the power to influence matters on a very wide scale. Samuel Bailey read a letter before the Literary and Philosophical Society in 1853 that read in part: “The men who held the reins of the commerce of this country, could command the destinies of the country, if they chose. It was necessary, therefore, that they should be organized to exercise the power they possessed..." (Patrick 1982). His reference was to Britain and in particular to Sheffield. This paper is dedicated to understanding the formation and operations of the middle class in Britain in the 19th century. In particular, the paper will focus on the class formation that was associated with the different people during that era. Additionally, the paper will aim at placing the context of operations from the period between 1780 and 1900. The people that will form the basis of this discussion are those that were considered the elite in both the industrial and professional sectors. This class was not exclusive to only those sectors but also largely encompassed those individuals that owned large tracks of land and were considered as being well off by the lower class. Naturally, such a social grouping has to have an organized way of association and this very often involves the formation of exclusive member clubs only for those that can sustain the cost of operation of such a grouping. These clubs formed the base in which the members could not only cool off away from the prying eyes of the media and the lower class but also for communication with like minded individuals. These individuals very often felt that they had the obligation to dictate policy to the rest of the citizenry and very often, the major decisions that affected the society in general stemmed from meetings in exclusive locations. In many occasions, the people that were charged with managing large manufacturer factories were often quoted as saying that the common people, who encompassed their workers, could not understand the intellectual power and the physical energy that was put by a single individual in order to manage a large number of people and to do it efficiently and effectively. Structurally as well as anything, this study does not aim to depict the middle class in the 19th century Britain as a homogeneous grouping. In fact, in many ways, this paper will show that this group of people was manifest in many forms and with a myriad of problems associated with it. The strength of having an unpredictable middle class is that there will ultimately be a balance in all functions of society including the economic and political functions. Organization of the middle class That the middle class in Britain in the 19th century had immense financial muscle is not in doubt. However, even the elite also have an elite grouping among themselves. This means that the middle class was in turn broken down into two groupings with one being regarded as big and the other as petty. This class of people had to work out the differences within their own structure. In order for them to gain political and religious rights, they had to work through the difficulty of compromise. While the middle class was working through the differences that they had, there was hostility from the rest of the society. This may have arisen from the need for political and other leadership that would drive the nation in an agreeable way forward. The middle class had to work amidst these disquieting reactions from the other members of the society. There was a major role that culture played as this grouping was able to work towards the establishment of institutions that helped consolidate their position in the society. The urban proletariat and the aristocracy had a determining relationship with the middle class that was the center of focus for the formation of an elite grouping within the middle class itself. The grouping of the elite is often referred to as bourgeoisie by many writers. The relationships that led to the formation of these elite is based on marriages and other sources of social cohesion that aimed to strengthen it amid opposition from other quarters of society. The unifying factor however was the common economic interests as well as other ideological perspectives mainly in matters of religion and politics. The amalgam that formed the elite in the middle class was increasingly being led by the urban-industrial nexus as they seemed to be the most dominant and vocal with experience of having opposed the aristocracy on many levels. Conflicts were very common as varying positions were being taken on an avalanche of matters, religious and political forming the nucleus of these conflicts (John 1977). In the first part of the 19th century, the formation of an English working class was the major emphasis. The second part was characterized by the formation of employers that controlled large numbers of workers. Towards the end of the century, the middle class had erected a structure that was formidable and thus, people could inherit the power and influence that had been cultivated by the previous generations. The vicissitudes of capitalism not withstanding, an economically and politically dominant family could rule a given part of Britain for a period of over 200 years. This begs for an analysis of how a single family could hold on to power for such a long period of time. This fact alone shows that the middle class elite was composed of intelligent and very crafty people who could devise formidable strategies that would ensure that they remained in control for long periods of time despite all the opposition from both the common citizenry as well as dissenting middle class voices. Many writers on 19 century British middle class tend to focus on the company directorships, poll books and wills that ensured that the reigns of power could be handed down for long periods of time. Some go as far as regarding the society as being composed of cultural institutions with the functions resembling those of a company or a business outlet. Such cultural institutions ensured that power could be handed down from generation to generation in much the same way as it occurs in industries. For the middle class elite to have had such an intricate network of communication it meant that they established their own neighborhoods where they would be consistently in touch without the hustles of classless neighbors. They created urban terrains where they existed free from the interruptions that arise from interacting with people of the lower class and middle class that were considered as being in the petty category. In most cases, these elite created a myriad of voluntary initiatives which meant that they were appreciated by the lower class that they targeted and also the fact that they could keep in touch within themselves (Hugh 1975). The institutions that were created by this group included theatres, assembly rooms and subscription libraries. Additionally, literary and philosophical libraries as well as hospitals would be used by some in the middle class elite in order to further their cause. The use of volunteer movements to influence opinion has been referred to as a military expression of self help. There is a massive number of literature that is aimed at focusing on the role that volunteerism played in the formation of the middle class as well as groupings within the middle class. The middle class in many areas in Britain differed in many ways in their operations. In some areas, disputes were so severe that intra-professional conflicts would result in the breakup of a single industry into many outlets in order to outdo each other. These cases were rarely witnessed. However, many conflicts that occurred were of an inter-professional nature and this resulted in the improvement of works that were done on certain topics. These occurrences cannot however provide a basis onto which concrete results can be achieved. Factors leading to the formation of the middle class In order to further analyze the operations of the elite in the middle class, reference has to be made to two distinct periods in history. The first is characterized by the light industry whereas the latter period was characterized by the heavy industry. Close discussion of these two periods will yield the necessary facts that could concretely understand the intricate dynamics that influenced the formation of the middle class and the eventual divisions within it. The heavy industry was mainly occasioned by advances in technology that led to the discoveries of better uses of steel. Whereas this latter industry was pivotal to the development of the middle class and the whole country as a whole, it was not the major source of employment for the local folks. In many areas in Britain in the 19th century, the manufacture of items from steel was the major emphasis. However, this was mainly diluted by the use of silverware, silver plating and coal mining. The only deviation from the use of metal was the use of bone, ivory and wood. Here, the produced goods included mainly handles. In the early part of the 1800s, the number of people that were employed in the production of steel products was considerably low. However, towards the end of the century, the number had increased in astronomous numbers. The exponential increment in the number of people employed was not only witnessed in the steel industry but was also witnessed in all other sectors. The middle class was borne out of these industries as they were responsible for the establishment of these industries. The other determining factor for the involvement of the middle class in the advancement in technology was the discovery of steam power. This development ensured that the previous operation of machines that involved water were no longer viable. As such, the people who had the financial muscle to procure the services of steam engines were mainly drawn from the middle class. This helped them to increase the output in the industries of operation as well as cutting on costs. More people from the lower class found employment in the avalanche of factories that were established. Although the major emphasis was the shift from state provided water towards the use of steam, the general output was not increased in largesse. Consequently, the elite in the middle class did not make increased profits from this investment. The development of the steam powered engines however led to investment in the discovery of other methods that would considerably reduce the costs that were involved in doing business. The development of this technology led to the division in the way that workers did their jobs. There were those that were being paid by the day and were composed of the classical proletariat and also those that were being referred to as the little mester (Patrick 1982). These groupings generally consisted of the lower class of people whereas merchants and manufacturers were derived from the middle class. The little mester was a little bit more advanced as he was typically equipped with his own tolls of work and also possessed the necessary skills that were essential in the transformation of an unfinished product into a finished one. Additionally, these workers relied on the merchants and manufacturers so that they could acquire contracts that were essential in their development into skilled personnel. The lack of capital or capability to have a claim on the products they produced only served to advance the merchants and manufacturers. This is because a product that was done by the little mester would be branded by the manufacturer or merchant who would claim its authenticity. Therefore, as the middle class was the group that composed the merchants and manufacturers, they were principally the beneficiaries in the long run. Their status and wealth was thus increased by these actions. In a different scenario, the little mester could be a person who does not work as a freelancer but rather as a worker employed by a larger merchant or a corporate. This would usually entail doing work that the merchant provides. This model was used extensively until 1820. The little mester in this scenario would usually have people working under him but the distinction between their roles was not easy. In the former scenario, where the little mester could function independently, there was a chance of him rising to the level of a manufacturer someday. The latter scenario does not present the little mester with the possibility of one day becoming a manufacturer. As the latter scenario was what was mainly preferred, the rise of the little mester, drawn from the lower class, to the middle class was unlikely and uncommon. Entry into the middle class was a very closed affair. In many cases, independent although small manufacturers were often under the influence of the larger manufacturers. This is because the larger capitalists could be able to dictate policy and thus make it difficult for small producers to influence the industry. This disparity was part of the reason that the middle class was segmented in itself. Unfair tactics in the market would be applied by the larger manufacturers and this would force the small manufacturers out of business. In retaliation, the small manufacturers would launch campaigns against the actions of the larger ones with no significant influence. This is because the elite in the middle class had political influences and thus made it hard for them to face any consequences. The heavy industry did not play any major role in defining the middle class in the period before 1850. In many cases, the production and treatment of steel was not regarded very highly and was adjudged as being a mere adjunct to the major uses of steel that was in the manufacture of cutlery and other tools. The labor and capital investments bore striking resemblances to those of the light sector in many ways. This industry was therefore unutilized in the earlier half of the century but it was later capitalized by the middle class which assisted in their dominance in matters of the state. Entry into the heavy industry is thought by many writers as being an easy affair. However, only those that had the necessary capital to launch such a venture would only benefit from it. The few people who had the capital to invest in this sector made sure that they discouraged competition since they had a stranglehold on it. The amount of money that was to be gained from patronage into this industry was very high. The high cost of steel discouraged many people in investing into the industry. However, the few people that did invest were rewarded as they made very large profits and in turn gained influence both financial and political. The heavy industry also had a major problem in the way that the steel was handled (Charlotte 1959). After the tasking job of heating and cooling cast or shear steel, the resultant steel was referred to as blister steel since it had very many imperfections on the surface. This shows that the technology that was required to make good quality steel was largely underdeveloped in this period. The result of such a complication was the abandonment of the industry by many financially viable investors from the middle class. Those that invested in the industry however went ahead to form the cream in manufacture and segregated themselves into a different caliber in the middle class. These investors were mainly involved in shipbuilding, building of railways, engineering and the manufacture of weapons. The discovery of a method of converting iron into steel was the major turning point for the heavy sector. Within the next 25 years after this discovery, the number of workers employed in the industry had expanded by more than 400%. The production of steel works had to be an affair that was well organized. This is because the average productive unit was large. Therefore, manufacturers needed a large workforce and increased it yearly. The middle class owners of large manufacturing outlets were quoted on many occasions pointing out that the job they did was that of an intelligent person. The skills that they acquired from the management of such a large grouping of people were invaluable in their application on the social scene. Managers could solicit the opinions of people and in turn craft policy as if they would be applied on a large corporate. This shaped the way that the middle class influenced the opinions and strategies of the community around them. Conclusion The discussion above has highlighted certain important aspects that led to the formation of the middle class and the divisions within it. In conclusion, the major points that have been evaluated are emphasized below. It is important to note that class formation largely influenced the way that Britain was run. The period between 1780 and the 1900 was characterized by many developments in Britain. Among the developments was the rise of the middle class and their growth into leadership of the country. The first aspect that shaped the middle class in this period was the economic resources that were at their disposal. These people ensured that they patronized the major industries and thus had the power to dictate policy on a massive scale in the industries of operation. The investment in both the light and heavy industries has shown that the middle class in Britain were a very resourceful and insightful people. Their rise in the society made them have the power to influence the religious and political viewpoints of the community as a whole. The expansion of the middle class saw them have divisions within themselves. This was because the contributions of many members were not in line with those of others. This meant that intra-professional as well as inter-professional conflicts were very common. Some of these disputes were very disruptive in the overall operation of societal institutions whereas some actually assisted in the furthering of the various causes. The elite people in the middle class were very shrewd and crafty. They made sure that they remained in the public eye through various volunteer initiatives. Here, they could assist the people who needed their particular expertise as well as maintain visibility. This strategy worked very well in influencing the political alignment of the lower class as they preferred those in the middle class that gave back to the community. Families of the elite in the middle class could apply this and many more strategies in order to hold on to power for extended periods of time. In fact, the scenarios that usually play out in companies where they are inherited are the same ones that play out in the activities of the society as a whole. Manufacturers and merchants formed the back of the middle class. They depended on the lower class that was referred to as the little mester for their operations. In the most common scenario, the little mester would have other people working under him although the differences in both classes were not easily identifiable. The products that the lower class produced for these manufacturers and merchants were usually branded with the identification of the latter rather than that of the former. References Charlotte, E. 1959. British Industrialists: Steel and Hosiery,1850-1950. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Hugh, C. 1975. The Volunteer Force: A Social and Political History. Croom Helm, London John, F. 1977. Class Struggle and the Industrial Revolution. Methuen, paperback edition (originally published, 1974). Patrick, J. 1982. Work, Society and Politics: The Culture of the Factory in later Victorian England. Methuen, paperback edition (originally published, 1980). Read More