Prevention of Childhood Obesity - Literature review Example

Running Head: Childhood Obesity Childhood Obesity Student’s Name Professor’s Name Subject Code and Name Date Submitted Childhood Obesity Obesity can be simply describes as a condition where the body possesses excess fat that has accumulated to a particular extent which is seen to compromise the health of the concerned individual to adverse levels. The BMI that is the Body Mass Index is among the most commonly used methods in the measurement of obesity in a given population level, be it children or adults. Obesity rates are seen to rise at an alarming rate throughout the world. It has been noted that child as well as adolescent obesity is a health problem of great significance that must be addressed. In Australia, over the last few decades, obesity prevalence among the children has risen to a marked extent. Consequently, the issue has become a matter of great concern, and not just in the short term as a social and health problem, it is seen to be a long term health issue that is likely to affect the concerned parties even in their adulthood. The raft of unpleasant health consequences for children that are obese especially when they grow up to adulthood has given the impetus needed to propel increased interest by the government as well as other key stakeholders in the role of obesity prevention policies as well as strategies (Keleher et al, 2007). As has been earlier mentioned, the prevalent childhood obesity began escalating in the early 70s and by the year 2007 to 2008, close to eight percent of the children aged between five to seventeen years old were seen to be obese while seventeen percent of them were overweight. Medical literature is seen to suggest that the obesity level among children of Australian origin is rather too high. The main concern that is associated with child obesity comes from its close linkage to poor social as well as psychological outcomes, and in addition to this, the physical health complications both in the long term and short term. An example in this case would be the fact that obesity in children and more especially in adolescents is associated with depression and low self-esteem. It is a fact that children who are viewed by the peers as obese can be socially discriminated upon. There is a wide range of health problems that are linked with child obesity and overweight and these include impaired mobility, asthma, liver disease, sleep apnoea, type 2-diabetes and also the risk factors for a disease known as cardiovascular disease. Despite the fact that a number of the above mentioned health complications manifest themselves in the lives of the children at a tender age, a number of them arise in their later years during their adulthood. Australian as well as global research have been seen to indicate that both the overweight children and their obese counterparts are placed at a higher risk of being adults who are either overweight or obese in comparison to the other normal weight kids (Keleher et al, 2007). The costs of obesity are indeed substantial in most cases are normally borne by the obese themselves and their immediate families. It would be true to say that the costs associated with today’s obese children who later on in life are likely to become obese adults become potential future economic costs for them (Keleher et al, 2007). These financial costs include, productivity losses, transfer costs which includes the deadweight loss that emanates from higher taxation level, career costs, health system costs for instance General practice and specialist services, nursing home and hospital costs and lastly but certainly not the least the indirect costs for instance, travel, aids and modifications. It is of importance to note that these costs are normally borne by the families of the children since the children are their dependants and the society by extension. Most of the costs that have been highlighted are borne basically through the loss of wellbeing which could be because of shorter lifespan or disability, and also because of the direct financial implications. Simply speaking, obesity is seen to result from a direct imbalance between the energy expended and the energy consumed. Some of the causes of obesity in children are within their control while others are not. In as much as there is a genetic relationship with obesity, this component in itself cannot account for the current rise obesity’s prevalence (Keleher et al, 2007). Potential Factors Responsible For the Rise of Child Obesity Source (Keleher et al, 2007) Some significant trends which can be attributed to the increased prevalence of obesity as well as overweight conditions include significant declines and reductions in prices if foodstuffs, increasing exercise costs, rising incomes, and the higher what can be termed as ‘time-cost’ of preparing meals at home as well as the increased availability of fast foods and take away pre-prepared meals. It is seen that such factors may have combined with the genetic programming component which causes human beings to store excess fat in times of plenty in order to prepare for futuristic famines as and when they occur (Keleher et al, 2007). (So far, these famines have not eventuated). Other variable factors which are seen to have an effect on weight outcomes are family characteristics for instance knowledge on nutrition, behavioral factors like dietary mix, and finally societal characteristics like ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Research has come up with the following general conclusions concerning Australian children’s obese situation, first and foremost is that their energy intake seems to have gone up since the 80s. The increased quantity of soft drinks in the market is partly responsible for this scenario. Secondly, children are seen to spend more time using the computers and video games as well as watching television contrary to what health authorities recommend. Thirdly, it appears that quite incidentally, the Australian children do not exercise or engage themselves in regular physical activities. There are a number of advertisements in the market that expose these children to a great number of energy dense nutrient poor foods in comparison to other children overseas. There are three major categories of factors that are closely linked to childhood obesity and overweight. First and foremost are family characteristics as well as style of parenting, secondly, child behaviours and characteristics which is inclusive of genetics as well as physical activity, sedentary behaviour and dietary intake. Last but not least is what can be termed as demographic, community and societal characteristics which may influence the families, parents and children’s behaviours. This includes the SES, that is the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, education and also the physical environment that characterizes a given situation or case. The socioeconomic status may directly influence the kind of foodstuffs that are available in the household and consequently influence the children’s dietary intake. Another factor of consideration based on the explanation above is the fact that escalating rates of crime may cause apprehension among parents and guardians and affect their preparedness to allow their children to engage in outdoor physical activity in the neighbourhood. In tackling the issue of child obesity, governments are able to employ quite a wide range of policy instruments and tools like subsidies and taxes as well as behavioural limitations that are likely to guarantee and warrant a softer intervention style for instance education and provision of information. Taxes and bans on specific energy dense nutrient poor foodstuffs can have significant impacts on the society’s health and in this case the children and adolescents. On genetics, a strong basis exists for the development and prevalence of obesity. A number of genes have actually been linked with a notable predisposition to excessive fat. This is to say that at least six of the very rare and unknown mutations of single geneses that cause severe early obesity have been discovered and identified. There are rare syndromes which cause obesity for instance Bardet-Biedl syndrome as well as Prader-Willi syndrome. Studies have shown that genetics have a significant impact on Body Mass Index variation at the various ages. It is important to note however that biological factors exclusively are unlikely to be the cause for the rise in obesity as was mentioned earlier. The rise however can also be attributed to the physical as well as social environment.Studies show that a baby’s birth weight seems to be closely associated with outcomes of the child’s weight throughout their early childhood. It has been seen that birth weight is linked to lean mass as opposed to fat mass. Others show that there is an inverse relationship between central fat and birth weight. Central fat is seen to be associated with cardiovascular disease risks and this could carry more risk in comparison to the total body fat. On diet, it can be correctly inferred that the type of food that the child takes directly contributes to the quantity of energy consumed. There are several factors that may have had an effect on both the financial and time cost of food intake that have led to a considerable change over a period of time. First and foremost the increasing incomes may have in effect increased the opportunity cost for cooking or preparing meals say in the home (Keleher et al, 2007). Secondly, food processing and agricultural innovation could have led to significant reductions in both the time cost and economic cost for preparing meals as well. Thirdly, the increase in hours of working is responsible for the increased time cost of food preparation. The amount of food consumed is not the only significant factor that demands considerable consideration. Energy density is vital because various macronutrients including proteins, carbohydrates and fats play various roles to the quantity of energy consumed. Biological facts clearly state that fat as a component is more readily stored in the body system in comparison to the other macronutrients which have mentioned above. The various macronutrients are seen to have varying satiety impacts that would either suppress or promote additional dietary or food intake. Energy density directly influences the palatability of food components which affects the consumption of the food concerned. The various macronutrients possess various thermic effects. This basically means that these will have an effect on the energy expenditure. Fat’s metabolic efficiency and also food consumption is seen to be directly influenced by energy storage in an individual’s body. A recent National Children survey conducted by the University of South Australia as well as CSIRO touching on the dietary patterns of Australian adolescents and children showed that energy consumption actually increased with age. Another important insight that this survey brought out is the fact that the difference between females and males grew broader as they increased in age. It was discovered that just under half of the total energy intake emanated from carbohydrates across all age groups. Out of this, sugars were seen to contribute to more intake of energy in the older children, with saturated fat on the other hand contributing more than polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat. The protein component in food contributed to about seventeen per cent of their energy intake (Keleher et al, 2007). It was established that in children carbohydrate intake was inversely related to sub scapular skin folds while fat intake was directly related to this. However, the two components were not related to triceps skin folds and the Body Mass Index. Another study also established the fact that there was a positive association between daily soft drinks and fruit juice service to the probability of being obese or overweight. This could be accounted for by the probability that in overall, a higher volume of these food components were being consumed by the children. It would be correct to state that treatment of child obesity and in this case in the Australian context, must begin at home. The family unit must alter its eating behavior and it can commence this by gradually approaching the matter. Slow gradual changes and alterations are easier to incorporate in the short term and maintaining the long run. A practical example would be to switch from sods to skimmed milk or even water and purposing to talk a walk after dinner, say on a weekly basis. Secondly, realistic, measurable goals ought to be set fir every individual family member then come up with family objectives. A child’s goal could be to eat fruits for the afternoon snack instead of junk food. Fast foods could be limited to once every month (Keleher et al, 2007). Another way to curb this undesirable trend of child obesity is to celebrate success. In the event that the specific goals have been adhered to by your child for instance, by asking for a fruit instead of crisps, reward them, either in the form of attention, gifts or praise. Positivity and optimism are also important factors in this quest. This is to say that treating child obesity is not a race and focus should be on healthy styles of living. It requires dedication and also time in order to put in place healthy behaviours. Flexibility is another aspect of vital importance. It goes without mentioning that it will take some time before one adjusts to new eating habits. If the goals that have been set for your children appear not to be working well, there ought to be room for making adjustments. It is of no use to stick to an old plan that appears not to be working well when one could easily make newer better ones. As parents and families endeavour towards the establishment of healthy eating habits, they must create an environmental set up which supports their efforts for example, keeping healthy foods at close reach such as whole grain foods, vegetables and fruits while keeping sugary drinks and junk food at bay. Physical activity or exercise should be incorporated into the family routine for all children, adolescents as well as adults for healthier lifestyles (Keleher et al, 2007). Children should also be encouraged to actively participate in community sports both at home and in their various institutions of learning. There should be a clear limit on the amount of time that children spend on the computer or television screen. Most importantly, parents must ensure that they are exemplary role models by committing themselves into the changes by being active participants in the changes they have instituted. Parents can be positive role models through eating foods that are nutritious, controlling their portion sizes, turning off the computers and TVs during meal times, engaging themselves in physical exercise and also through stressing the benefits of healthy lifestyle choices as opposed to numbering on the scale. The ANF that is the Australian Nursing Federation is the national union umbrella that covers all Australian Nurses. Members of this union are employed in various regions for the sole purpose of rendering service to the community. The body closely works with the government and other key stake holders in the development of nursing strategies and even policies, community training and education over the issue of obesity which has over time become an issue of national concern. Community nurses usually hold a number of training programs and seminars whose objective is the propagation of healthy eating habits and nutrition and emphasis has been laid on the children’s dietary intake. This has been done as a means of eliminating the problem from grass root levels. Various rehabilitations areas have been set up and professional nurses deployed to these centers in order to manage overweight issues as well as obesity. The epidemic of child obesity is completely preventable as well as treatable. It is widely acknowledged however that prevention is way better than cure. Nursing strategies and policies that are specifically aimed at both the prevention and treatment of childhood obesity can greatly reverse the undesirable trends that are seen to be caused by this particular epidemic. A significant number of nurses work in primary health care settings especially the maternal and child clinics in a bid to manage as well as prevent obesity, an issue that is seen to currently characterize virtually all societal groups (Keleher et al, 2007). Focus of this paper is however the young children and adolescents who are at high risks due to the factors that have been mentioned earlier. The nurses provide treatment, care and rehabilitation services to the concerned and affected parties. The aim of these nurses is to limit adult obesity to a significant extent and the strategy employed to meet this objective is develop healthy habits and behaviours among children and adolescents. The major responsibility of these care givers is to basically empower the society for them to change their lifestyles in order to overcome obesity. The nurses work in collaboration with families and more specifically parents and guardians to achieve the objectives that are aimed towards the achievement of good health in adolescents and the children as well. A nursing strategy that can be used is the implementation of the BMI screening as well as parental notification programs in learning institutions such as schools. The school nurses can easily obtain the height and weight measurements of the school children and find their BMI in order to determine where each of them falls on the CDC’s BMI screening charts. Such information is of vital importance and can enable the child to obtain health help to prevent obesity and the risks associated with the same (Keleher et al, 2007). Along with what has been aforementioned, the nurses can lay focus on educating as well as promoting physical activity and exercises among the school children in collaboration with the games departments of the concerned schools. Educating of families enables them to effect the necessary changes that are needed for the alteration of bad eating habits into healthy lifestyles. In conclusion, it is of dire importance to mention the fact that the treatment as well as prevention of childhood obesity is crucial in quest for helping children avoid life threatening disease as well as psychological trauma that is associated with being obese or overweight. The childhood epidemic is on an alarming increase but at the same time, nurses have the ability and knowledge needed to create an impact on the same and reverse the trends. The employment of key nursing policies and educating the family will without a shadow of doubt fight this epidemic (Keleher et al, 2007). References Keleher, H. et al. (2007). Review of primary and community care nursing. Canberra: Australian Primary Health Care Research Institute. Print Read More