Trachea, Bronchus, and Lung Cancer - Literature review Example

Literature Review: Trachea, Bronchus, and Lung Cancer Name Course Name and Code Date Introduction Different type of diseases exists and it is imperative to understand the diseases to enable effective diagnosis and treatment. Lung cancer is an example of such a disease that affects the respiratory system of an individual and it is associated with pollutants and air pollution. The number of lung cancer deaths is increasing while the effectiveness of the treatment is still poor. It is estimated that more than 1.5 million people across the world have the condition, and continuous research and development have to be done to improve diagnosis and treatment. The researchers and scientist have employed technology in understanding lung cancer and proposing appropriate medication. The purpose of the paper is to discuss the medical problem of lung cancer, treatment strategies, and identification of causative agents. Medical problem Lung cancer is a major problem, and Simone et al. (2012) utilizes the estimates of 2011 stating that more than 1.6 million people have been diagnosed worldwide. Vieira et al. (2016) state that lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in men and second in women after cervix cancer. Travis et al. (2011) acknowledges the problem and states that adenocarcinoma is the common histologic subtype and accounts to around a half of lung cancers. Within lung adenocarcinoma, there are pathologic spectrums, molecular, radiologic and divergent clinical approaches. Understanding these different components of cancer informs on the appropriate corrective and preventive measures including treatment. According to Leong et al. (2013), lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the world. The survival rate of diagnosed problem is estimated at 15% for an overall review of five years. The problem, Leong et al. (2013) attributes to the delayed recognition of the problem. National Lung Screening Trial Research Team (2011) states that lung cancer is a heterogeneous and aggressive disease. This understanding is linked to the continuous advances in the medical fields, but the survival rate remains low of diagnosed individuals. National Lung Screening Trial Research Team (2011) state that smokers are at an elevated position for the disease. Therefore, smokers and non-smokers are at risk because of the medical condition, and the solution is limiting exposure to tobacco. Pope III et al. (2011) acknowledges the severity of cardiovascular and lung cancer and attributes the problem to pollution. The authors highlight smoking and different pollutants as the causative agents. Exposure to these pollutants prevents the respiratory system from operating effectively, resulting in the problem. Simone et al. (2012), Leong et al. (2013) and Pope III et al. (2011) concurs stating that prevention and awareness in addressing lung cancer. Avoiding chemicals and pollutants that contribute to lung cancer is important and would prevent the thousands of deaths reported. For example, eliminating smoking and exposure to non-smokers is crucial in reducing risks of lung cancer. In addition, it will prevent the spread of other diseases or even weakening the immune system of the in-risk population. Treatment Strategies Numerous treatment methods exist, which includes radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and surgery. Simone et al. (2012) state, the severity, and magnitude of the disease need additional palliative and therapeutic treatment modalities. Relying on the traditional methods does not improve the treatment regime. National Lung Screening Trial Research Team (2011) presents numerous strategies to advance the problem, but the most important one is screening. Screening enables identification of the problem at an earlier stage in which medication can provide appropriate treatment regime. Numerous techniques are applicable, and the low dose CT is appropriate because it reduces lung cancer mortality rates. The radiography technique is sometimes not effective based on the studies and may be attributed to the experiences of the users and the quality of equipment employed. Simone et al. (2012) acknowledge there are different methods of treatment, but the severity of the problem determines the most appropriate treatment regime. Simone et al. (2012) state that Photodynamic therapy is appropriate for non-small cell lung cancer because the current technologies are unable to detect minor tumors. However, the authors’ acknowledged the treatment regime is underutilized and proposes that it is appropriate for treatment of synchronous primary carcinomas, roentgenographically occult and endobronchial. Travis et al. (2011) advance the ideas and states that improving the classification process is important in determining the appropriate medication and treatment processes. Through such a process, it is possible to identify a problem and determine the appropriate treatment regime. Shaw et al. (2013) collaborate the sentiments by stating that anaplastic lymphoma kinase is a component that can be used to elicit discussions on classification and also addressing lung cancer. Understanding the problem and surrounding conditions enables implementation of treatment that integrates the components of the disease and associated medication regimes. Therefore, appreciating the numerous causes of the problem and the influence on the body is important in diagnosing and treating the problem. Leong et al. (2013) analyzes standard bronchoscopy and states that the effectiveness of the processes is limited. However, the improvement in diagnosis and treatment is attributed to the advancing electronic and miniaturization techniques. The author has described numerous new bronchoscopic techniques, which includes confocal microscopy and optical coherence tomography. Yu, Clayman & Walsh (2011) also discusses the important of technology in addressing problems that cannot be addressed by basic methods. For example, microsurgical reconstruction is an alternative approach to treating tracheal complications. It deviates from the lung cancer approach, but it is a strategy that is used to treat the problem. Pope III et al. (2011) takes an entirely different perspective when it comes to treatment. Pope III et al. (2011) states that there are numerous methods of treatment but prevention is important., For example, minimal exposure to the agents contributes to different diseases but excess exposure results in lung cancer. Prevention and palliative care are important in such scenarios because awareness would be created limiting the exposure to the problem. Neuberger et al. (2015) state that most carcinoid tumors originate from a specific position, which is connected to the bronchopulmonary main system. Therefore, the authors propose parenchyma-sparing surgery techniques and preoperative bronchoscopic treatment in addressing the problem. Utilization of these techniques is important because based on the carried out studies, negative effects based on survival rates, recurrence and metastasis were not detected. Therefore, identification of the root cause of the problem and carrying out appropriate treatment regimes and strategies is important in addressing the lung cancer problem. Causative Agents for Trachea, Bronchus, and Lung Cancer Pope III et al. (2011) states that diseases are common, but the origin of the disease or causative agents should be analyzed. The authors present that the highest number of lung cancer patients traces the problem to smoking. Air pollution and particulate matter have also been linked to the lung cancer and related diseases. Understanding the agents enables identification of the problem, which also reduces resource allocation to treat the problem. Hence, Pope III et al. (2011) appreciates the importance of prevention than curing the problem. Vieira et al. (2016) concur with Pope III et al. (2011) by stating that smoking causes lung cancer. Even non-smokers who are exposed have increased the risk of lung cancer but also nutritional factors may affect the rate of risk of lung cancer. Elimination of smoking is one strategy to reduce lung cancer, but the protective role of vegetables and fruits in ling cancer etiology is also crucial. Continuous consumption of fruits and vegetables indicates it is an appropriate strategy because it reduces the spread of cancer or completely inhibits the problem. However, elimination of smoking is the integral component in addressing the respiratory problem. Conclusion In conclusion, lung cancer, and related diseases kills many people yearly and also causes socioeconomic challenges. Men population is affected more than women, and it causes the highest cancer deaths. Smoking, air pollution, and exposure to different chemicals are some of the factors contributing to the problem. Numerous prevent measures, diagnosis strategies and treatment measures exist with different levels of effectiveness. The solution to lung cancer is championing awareness and prevention measures. In addition, the use of technology and continuous research and development should be embraced to improve the efficacy towards dealing with lung cancer. Literature Review Grid Author(s) Journal, Year Subject/Keywords Sample Methodology Statistical method Main Findings Finding Relevant to My Research Question Simone et al. Journal of Thoracic Disease, 2012 Palliative care, endobronchial, lung cancer, photodynamic therapy Medical literature review of articles published on the subject with more than 10 samples Literature review was used as the methodology Content analysis and comparative analysis Photodynamic therapy is appropriate in treating non-small cell lung cancer The treatment of lung cancer is important, and the photodynamic is one of the approaches Leong Steven, Tawimas, Stephen, Kazuhiro Journal of Thoracic Disease, 2013 Diagnosis, bronchoscopy and lung cancer Review of numerous techniques Literature review Content analysis Innovative bronchoscopic techniques are important for early diagnosis Additional tool to analyze effective and modern techniques Pope III et al. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2011 Smoking, particulate matter, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease and air pollution Cohort data of 1.2 million people Statistical analysis and cohort analysis Regression and comparative analysis Air population and other forms of population contribute lung problems Understanding causative agents and contribution of the agents to worsening medical problem Vieira et al. Annals of Oncology, 2016 Meta-analysis, smoking, lung cancer, vegetables and fruits 72 articles Meta-analysis Meta-analysis Elimination of smoking is important and eating vegetables and fruit is a protective strategy Informs on the causes and protective measures Yu, Clayman & Walsh Cancer, 2011 Air leak, tracheal stent, thyroid cancer, tracheal tumor, radial forearm flap and tracheal reconstruction 7 patients Practical analysis based on carried out surgeries Population analysis based on the completed studies Microsurgical reconstruction can be alternative approach of treating cervical tracheal defects Helps in understanding tracheal defects and reconstruction Neuberger et al. BMJ Open Respiratory Research, 2015 Pulmonary carcinoid tumors, 208 patients with bronchopulmonary carcinoid tumors Quantitative and qualitative analysis Regressional Analysis Pulmonary carcinoid tumors are directly linked to lung cancer parenchyma-sparing surgery techniques and preoperative bronchoscopic treatment National Lung Screening Trial Research Team The New England Journal of Medicine, 2011 helical computed tomography, screening, tumors, early stages 53,454 sample at 33 US medical centers between 2002 and 2009 Quantitative analysis Regressional Analysis and statistical analysis The use of low-dose CT is important in reducing lung cancer mortality Advances diagnosis measures and effectiveness of the measures in treating the problem Travis et al. Journal of Thoracic Oncology, 2011 Colloid, pathology, radiology, lung, classification 312 articles Systemic review Content analysis diagnosis of lung adenocarcinoma is proposed that incorporates numerous aspects including surgical issues, radiologic, molecular, and clinical Employing pathology and radiology in addressing the lung problem Shaw et al. New England Journal of Medicine, 2013 anaplastic lymphoma kinase, chemotherapy, crizotinib 347 patients Comparative analysis Meta-analysis and regressional analysis With ALK rearrangement, crizotinib is seen as superior when compared with standard chemotherapy The article informs on alternative treatment methods Doebele et al. Clinical Cancer Research, 2012 anaplastic lymphoma kinase, crizotinib, radiologic Analysis of tissue obtained from 14 patients Quantitative and qualitative analysis Comparative analysis Crizotinib contributes to some form of mutation Understanding the consequences of certain treatment strategies References Doebele, R. C., Pilling, A. B., Aisner, D. L., Kutateladze, T. G., Le, A. T., Weickhardt, A. J., ... & Varella-Garcia, M. (2012). Mechanisms of resistance to crizotinib in patients with ALK gene rearranged non–small cell lung cancer. Clinical Cancer Research, 18(5), 1472-1482. Retrieved from http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/18/5/1472.full Leong, S., Shaipanich, T., Lam, S., & Yasufuku, K. (2013). Diagnostic bronchoscopy--current and future perspectives. Journal of thoracic disease, 5(5), S498-S510. Retrieved from http://jtd.amegroups.com/article/view/1599/html National Lung Screening Trial Research Team. (2011). Reduced lung-cancer mortality with low-dose computed tomographic screening. The New England Journal of Medicine, 365(5), 395. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4356534/ Neuberger, M., Hapfelmeier, A., Schmidt, M., Gesierich, W., Reichenberger, F., Morresi-Hauf, A., ... & Lindner, M. (2015). Carcinoid tumours of the lung and the ‘PEPPS’approach: evaluation of preoperative bronchoscopic tumour debulking as preparation for subsequent parenchyma-sparing surgery. BMJ Open Respiratory Research, 2(1), e000090. Retrieved from http://bmjopenrespres.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000090.full?sid=6e923d70-4314-40d2-b398-0736e242906e Pope III, C. A., Burnett, R. T., Turner, M. C., Cohen, A., Krewski, D., Jerrett, M., ... & Thun, M. J. (2011). Lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality associated with ambient air pollution and cigarette smoke: shape of the exposure-response relationships. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(11), 1616. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/openview/2d8b175137840191f658f2456ee1763b/1?pq-origsite=gscholar Shaw, A. T., Kim, D. W., Nakagawa, K., Seto, T., Crinó, L., Ahn, M. J., ... & Wu, Y. L. (2013). Crizotinib versus chemotherapy in advanced ALK-positive lung cancer. New England Journal of Medicine, 368(25), 2385-2394. Retrieved from http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1214886#t=article Simone, I. I., Charles, B., Friedberg, J. S., Glatstein, E., Stevenson, J. P., Sterman, D. H., ... & Cengel, K. A. (2011). Photodynamic therapy for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. Journal of Thoracic Disease, 4(1), 63-75. Retrieved from http://jtd.amegroups.com/article/view/264/555 Travis, W. D., Brambilla, E., Noguchi, M., Nicholson, A. G., Geisinger, K. R., Yatabe, Y., ... & Garg, K. (2011). International association for the study of lung cancer/American thoracic society/European respiratory Society international multidisciplinary classification of lung adenocarcinoma. Journal of Thoracic Oncology, 6(2), 244-285. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1556086415319304 Vieira, A. R., Abar, L., Vingeliene, S., Chan, D. S. M., Aune, D., Navarro-Rosenblatt, D., ... & Norat, T. (2016). Fruits, vegetables and lung cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Oncology, 27(1), 81-96. Retrieved from http://annonc.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/1/81.full?sid=d55e0fcd-90bf-4743-812c-da9d76416ea0 Yu, P., Clayman, G. L., & Walsh, G. L. (2011). Long‐term outcomes of microsurgical reconstruction for large tracheal defects. Cancer, 117(4), 802-808. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.25492/full Read More