Miscarriage - Causes, Signs, and Symptoms - Annotated Bibliography Example

Annotated Bibliography on Miscarriage Your Name Class Name Lecturer’s Name Date Assignment Due Boyce, P., Condon, J. & Ellwood, D. (2002). Pregnancy Loss: A Major Life Event Affecting Emotional Health and Well-being. Medical Journal of Australia, 176(6), 250-251. This article acknowledges that about 12%-15% of the pregnancies lead to miscarriages. The authors note that risk of loss of pregnancy is high with an increase in maternal age. Most of these miscarriages occur within the first 20 weeks. Boyce, Condon & Ellwood argue that the psychological outcomes are not only problematic but also complicated. The woman has to grief over the potential life that has been lost and may have a feeling of self blame more especially if she was engaged in a potentially hazardous behavior like smoking or alcohol consumption. The psychological sequel that follows is characterized by depression, anxiety and somatization that can persist for more than six months. It may also precipitate the pre-existing psychotic disorders and increase the risks of developing an anxiety or depressive disorder. Poor social support for these individuals may also facilitate he depression. They recommend the necessity for proper management of the pregnancy loss and a follow-up counseling by the woman’s obstetrician or any health care professional who can able to address her medical and psychological issues. This will help her mask the grief and reduce the possibility of litigation. Psychological support is also necessary for other family members to encourage them. Cohen, J. (2005). Coming to Term: Uncovering the Truth about Miscarriage. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Press. This book presents a research by Cohen about miscarriage, a controversial topic that is difficult to understand after his wife had suffered from multiple miscarriages. The book describes the dynamics in human production, impact of odd numbers of chromosomes, impaired fetus, relevance of a woman’s age as well as a range of medical interventions necessary to help women carry their babies to term. The book has integrated readable stories about couples whose hope for a baby had been turned to be a miscarriage. Cohen regards miscarriage as a malfunction and not a sickness and in his book; he gives detailed information on why and how miscarriages occur. He says that women miscarry due to various reasons including hormonal problems, structural problems of the uterus and many others. He describes intriguing studies of conception on what happens when sperm meets the ovum. He acknowledges miscarriage as an emotionally sad event and thus, the woman requires a warm and nurturing relationship from the caregivers during the situation. The book uses scientific opinions from numerous researchers to provide an intelligently skeptical illuminating guidance on controversial treatments of miscarriage. He argues that to design a treatment for miscarriage is difficult since it is caused by different factors. Lerner, H. & Domar, A. (2003). Miscarriage: Why it Happens & How Best to Reduce your Risk. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press This book answers the question as to why women miscarry and what can be done so as to prevent it from reoccurring. It authoritatively interprets scientific information and gives a clear picture on the causes of miscarriage. Lerner & Domar consider the role of anatomy, age, genetics, environment and lifestyle on the risk of miscarriage. The book also gives recommendations on how women can get through the sorrows of miscarriage. The book illustrates that miscarriage should not be confused with stillbirth: miscarriage occurs within the first 20 months while still birth occurs after 20 months. They argue that during miscarriage, the pregnancy tissues start to breakdown. These tissues (products of pregnancy) are then expelled by the uterus for the next one to three weeks. Vaginal bleeding, with or without cramping may be the sign of having a miscarriage. The extent of bleeding may vary from just spotting to massive hemorrhaging while the cramping may vary from mild uterine irritability to intensive painful uterine contractions. He however notes that bleeding may occur in the early stages of pregnancy as a result of marginal abruption of the placenta, inflammation, hormonal changes or infection. Diagnosis of a miscarriage can be followed by Dilation & Curettage where the cervix is stretched to allow instruments to be passed into the uterus to scrap out the products of conception. The authors acknowledge the benefits of a D &C since it gives an immediate relief from the miscarriage episode and it eliminates the potential cramping and bleeding recurring in the weeks that follow. Miscarriage Support Auckland Inc. (n.d). Miscarriage. Retrieved on 24th March, 2011 http://www.miscarriagesupport.org.nz/books.html The New Zealand forum defines miscarriage as a spontaneous abortion of a fetus or embryo before twenty weeks and the dead baby usually weighs under 400g. In New Zealand, miscarriage affects 1 woman in every 4 women and the highest risk period occurs during the 4th and 6th weeks. However, they say that most of the fetal deaths occur during the first trimester of pregnancy. They argue that chances of a woman losing her first pregnancy are higher than the subsequent ones. In explaining what happens during miscarriage, the forum highlights that symptoms that occur depends on the cause of the miscarriage and the stage of the pregnancy. The conception products such as blood from the uterus, fetus, and placenta leave the body through the vagina. In addition, she might experience cramps. However, one experiencing these symptoms may end up carrying the baby full term in a condition referred to as threatened miscarriage. Once a pregnant woman realizes these symptoms, it is necessary for her to visit a health care provider for confirmation. Routine scans may indicate an empty fetal sac or no heartbeat. Actually, during the time of bleeding, the baby has already died unless until 6 weeks when only few amount of blood is lost that there are 80% chances of the baby surviving. The causal factors that lead to miscarriages include poor nutrition, exposure to too much radiation, chain smoking, drug abuse, hormonal imbalances, infections such as Chlamydia and genetic factors. Once a miscarriage has occurred, it is advisable for one to stick to the sanitary pads rather than tampons, cotton panties and avoid sexual intercourse until the person feels no pain. Mishra, G., Dobson, A. & Schofield, M. (2000). Cigarette Smoking, Menstrual Symptoms and Miscarriage among Young Women. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 24 (4), 413-420. This article examines the relationship between cigarette smoking and miscarriage among young women. In their study, Mishra, Dobson & Schofield (2000) the participants consisted of 14,779 women between the ages of 18 and 23. The article shows that both the ex-smokers and the current smokers have an increased risk of miscarriages when compared to women who are non smokers. In addition, there are highest risks for heavy smokers who take more than twenty cigarettes per day. In their literature review, miscarriage can be defined as a spontaneous loss of a pregnancy within the first 20 weeks of pregnancy due to genetic abnormalities, advanced maternal age, and implantation abnormalities. They add that alcohol taking and smoking increase the potential risks of one miscarrying. The symptoms that they identify that are associated with miscarriage include bleeding and cramping. They also add that miscarriages can lead to the loss of pregnancy symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, breast tenderness and fatigue. Women are advised not to smoke so as to avoid the risk of losing their pregnancies. Moulder, C. (2001). Miscarriage: Women's experiences and Needs. London: Routledge. This book focuses on the physical aspects of earlier miscarriages as well as later miscarriages. Moulder acknowledges that the causes of miscarriages are complex to understand but she tries to give some grasp on what would be wrong while understanding the pregnancies. She says that early miscarriages occur due to chromosomal abnormalities or effects in the ovum or sperms and any vulnerability to damage by outside factors such as chemical and drugs, radiation or virus infection could lead to miscarriage which the author regards as a healthy response to the abnormalities. He says that if the pregnancy continues, an abnormal baby can result. For the symptoms of miscarriages, she says that they could be similar to those of pregnancy such as bleeding and pain. She notes that a pregnant woman may bleed and experience cramps (symptoms of miscarriage) and yet end up having a perfectly happy baby. It is therefore necessary for one who experiences such a condition to see the doctor so as to ascertain if it is really a miscarriage or not through a clinical assessment or technological assistance of an ultrasound scan. The book indicates that miscarriages are unique and are characterized by patterns of cramps, bleeding and pain. Moulder argues that it may be hard for women to know what they expect during a miscarriage. One may experience heavy bleeding leading to an emergency. To deal with such a situation, Moulder recommends the use of Ergometrine or Syntocinon injection to help in making the womb contract hence lessening the blood loss. The information gathered for this book was derived from a research where women were interviewed about their experiences, and thus, breaking the silence about miscarriage. Roberson, R. (n.d). Dealing with Miscarriage: The Facts on Miscarriage (Causes, Signs, Symptoms and Trying to Conceive Again After Miscarriage). Pregnancy Today. Retrieved 24 March 2011 from http://www.pregnancytoday.com/articles/dealing-with-miscarriage/the-facts-on-miscarriage-6884/4/ This article gives facts on miscarriage that include the causes, signs and symptoms. Roberson defines miscarriage as a loss of a fetus and regards it as an emotionally devastating experience for the mothers. While determining the causes of miscarriage, Roberson argues that for the first trimester miscarriages, they are caused by chromosomal, placental and uterine abnormalities as well as increased maternal age. It is believed that early miscarriages may seem to be beneficial for the family because they are normally caused genetic abnormalities, and thus preventing an abnormal pregnancy from continuing. Roberson says that the second trimester miscarriages occur as a result of cervical incompetence, placental attachments or infection of the uterus. This article recognizes the symptoms of miscarriage to include abdominal cramping and vaginal bleeding. A miscarriage can then be confirmed using an ultrasound scan. He however notes that some pregnancies can experience bleeding but they go on to develop normally. The physical aftermath that follows in a woman is either she lets her body take a natural course or chose to have a dilation and curettage (D &C). Doctors often recommend for a D &C immediately they realize a sign of fever or hemorrhaging. He encourages couples that an early miscarriage does not affect their ability of having a normal pregnancy in future unless it reoccurs. In her research, Dr. Landerr says that once a miscarriage is complete, a woman can experience off-and on bleeding or spotting for one or four weeks. The pain experienced also reduces once the miscarriage is complete. But hormonally, it may take sometime for the hormone levels to adjust in the body. Physicians advice women who have had a miscarriage to wait for two to three normal menstrual cycles so as to allow the uterus lining to become normal again. Thompson, S. (2010). Improving Miscarriage Support in New Zealand. NZ research. Retrieved on 24th March, 2011 from http://www.miscarriagesupport.org.nz/nzresearch.html This article indicates that approximately 1 in 4 pregnancies in New Zealand end up in a miscarriage. Thompson argues that the grief that occurs after a miscarriage is not a new phenomenon. Many women have suffered from the grief which, in some cases, has led to anxiety, depression and extreme post traumatic stress disorder. Unlike other researches, that focus on the known about miscarriage, this article highlights various differing social factors contributing to the experience of miscarriage and looks into ways to manipulate the experience itself and improve the support offered to the women who miscarry. From statistics, it is evident that 50% of miscarriages are due to chromosomal abnormalities. Other causal factors include advanced paternal or maternal age, use of technologies to conceive. Alcohol, tobacco and caffeine consumption, work schedule and high body mass are potential risk factors for miscarriage. Thompson argues that medicalization of pregnancy, zero-funding of non-profit services, minimal hospital support services, and lack of financial provision in employment contracts in New Zealand make the women to suffer from miscarriage. Miscarriages in New Zealand are largely unacknowledged, their support unfunded and there is lack of recognition of these events by both the society and the government. They recommend policy complications such as medical care, employment contracts, and government funding, public awareness in order to improve miscarriage support in New Zealand. Read More