Alcohol-Related Harm in Australia - Literature review Example

ALCOHOL RELATED HARM IN AUSTRALIA Student’s Name Date of Submission BACKGROUND The current society has attached more value to alcohol compared to the previous generation. According to Roche et al. (2009), alcohol is not just a commodity which causes intoxication; society has turned it into something with cultural and symbolic meaning. In most advertisements it is on the same level as milk, bread or orange juice without any consideration to its harmful effects. According to the author, it is an integral part of Australian society; it is an important economic commodity in terms of revenue to an economy, and lastly, it is a major contributor to preventable illness and death. The author notes a significant variation in biological response to alcohol depending on body size, gender, and composition, age, experience of drinking, genetics, nutrition and an individual’s metabolism. The author attributes relaxation, wellbeing, and loss of inhibitions as the immediate effects of alcohol use. Alcohol related harm affects a given population disproportionately, according to Royal College Faculty of Public Health (2016), same factors are usually related with being either a perpetrator or victim of this violence. These include increased alcohol consumption, genetic traits and a given environment making the group most at risk as men aged between 16 to 29 years. Most affected people include unemployed youth with high levels of alcohol consumption and those who regularly visit pubs and nightclubs. According to a demographic study of Australia’s population, as of 2013 according to McCrindle (2013), there were 4,280,322 youth between ages of 12 to 25 which is 18.6 % of the total population. Of this number, males comprise 51.4% while females 48.7% of the total youth population. According to the author in the period between 2020 to 2028 population in Australia are projected to increase by 60% however youth population will decrease. By 2028 there will therefore be more people aged 60 than aged under 20 this is based on the fact that in 2013 25% of the population is under 20, and 19.6% of population is over 60 while in 2008 26% of the population was under 20 years, and 18.5% of the population was over 60 years. According to Kieran and Reynato (2010), in August 2013, a fact finding study was done by Australian Youth Affairs Coalition together with The Australian Institute in order to get issues which affect young Australians. According to the samples, respondents aged 17-24 years old gave affordable and available housing, unemployment, high cost and improvement of education especially tertiary and binge drinking and violence thereafter as their top five issues concerning them. According to the study, 46% of the respondents in this survey ranked binge drinking and alcohol related violence in their top five issues however only 9% of young people specifically aged between 17-24 consider this their most important. Agreeing with Goh and Moffat (2008), alcohol is a major cause of violence in Australia, in NSW alone 45% of its assaults (33,147 cases) in the year leading to September 2007 were alcohol related . this is supported by a study by Roche et al. (2001), where the authors attributed 31% of youth aged 15 to 18 and 32% of youth aged between 19 to 24 in Queensland who came to the Emergency Department for an injury had already consumed alcohol in the six hours leading to the injury. Royal College Faculty of Public Health (2005), state that there are four types of alcohol related violence. The first type is violence in public settings. In this type of violence according to a study done in England by the Royal College, it accounted for half of all its alcohol related violence. This type occurs in or around pubs and clubs, and its increase is attributed to promotions which encourage such irresponsible behaviors and also due to an insufficient transport system, poor lighting and inappropriately or otherwise overwhelmed police services. The other type is sexual violence which the author estimated to be as many as 19,000 sexual assaults. According to Royal College Faculty of Public Health (2005) in many of these incidents the perpetrators consumed alcohol. The third type of violence is domestic violence which mostly women undergo. According to this study, alcohol is estimated to be a factor in a third of all incidents of domestic violence. The last type of violence according to the study is defined as self-directed violence which includes self-harm and suicides. According to this study in England, it is estimated that it is associated with 15% to 25% of all suicides and 65% of all attempted suicides. This study in England conducted by the Royal College came to the same conclusion as those found by Tanya et al. (2004), in a study done in seven counties of Australia who found out that the top five causes of alcohol attributable deaths and any hospitalization are as follows: Top-five causes of alcohol-attributable death and hospitalization (%), males and females Deaths (%) Hospitalization (%) Males Males Road injury 56 Falls 26 Suicide 13 Assault 22 Pedestrian RI 11 Alcohol abuse 18 Assault 7 Road injury 16 Drowning 5 Pedestrian RI 3 Females Females Road injury 43 Alcohol Abuse 37 Suicide 21 Suicide 18 Assault 12 Assault 11 Pedestrian RI 9 Falls 12 Drowning/Fire 7 Alcohol poisoning 6 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The level of harm has been on the rise due to alcohol while interventions to minimize its usage are being implemented occasionally. It is important to note how effective these interventions are. JUSTIFICATION There is a need to address issue of harm due to alcohol because now more than before alcohol is receiving widespread marketing, many types of alcohol designed to target even those who are considered light drinkers. Violence in any society contributes to mal-development in any community further increasing the need for a study to look at these alcohol based violence and interventions put in place. These points are further proven by Roche et al. (2009), the author notes that there is a downward trend in average drinking of alcohol there has been an increase in production of various alcohol types, there is also more outlets to making it more available, there is more tolerant licensing laws, a more aggressive marketing of it and finally, there has been an introduction of policies minimizing competition. The author also noted that alcohol has managed to gain entry to otherwise non-drinkers such as women and young people by creating products that are targeted for them, for instance, cheaper and flavored. Thereby prompting need for a study into effectiveness of interventions because it increases risks of violence. ANALYSIS WHY ALCOHOL LEADS TO HARM First, it is important to give an illustration into what causes people to be more inclined to violence after taking alcohol. According to National Institute on Alcohol Abuse (2016), a study done in 1997 noted that a two way association exists between alcohol consumption and violence or aggression. Traditionally it had been known that alcohol consumption can promote aggression. However, the study brought a new concept that victimization and aggression may also bring about excessive alcohol consumption. The study also noted that in order to break the continuous sequence of alcohol abuse and violence, it is imperative to appreciate the nature of this relationship through analyzing the role of the brain in regulation of such behaviors. According to the author, alcohol encourages aggression because it disrupts normal brain functions. This is based on a hypothesis known as disinhibition; for instance alcohol weakens brain’s mechanism to restrain from impulses such as inappropriate behavior. This disruption of normal brain function may result into misjudgment of social cues thereby causing an individual to overreact to a perceived threat. It is important to note that many subjects in many experimental researches on this issue found out that alcohol may facilitate aggressive behaviors however these subjects rarely had an increased aggression unless they felt threatened therefore the point that intoxication alone does not result into violence. Alcohol consumption can lead to aggression because people generally expect it to (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse, 2016). For example, a research using real alcoholic drink and a control showed that people who as they take or before taking alcohol believed that it would result in more aggression become aggressive no matter the amount taken. Therefore, social expectations promote male aggressiveness coupled with the common perception that intoxicated women are sexually receptive therefore less able to defend themselves adds to the association between drinking and violence especially rape. Another reason given by the author is that a person generally tends to drink alcohol to increase his perceived courage and to avoid punishment before committing a crime. It is common for someone to say he did an awful act because he was drunk so as to avoid public anger and punishment. This popular view of intoxication as a ‘time-out’ is motivational to drinkers because someone who is drunk is not subject to same rules of conduct as a sober person. REASONS FOR ALCOHOL RELATED VIOLENCE With reference to National Institute on Alcohol Abuse (2016), violence normally precedes alcohol misuse which results in a continuous cycle. According to the author a woman who is experiencing alcohol problems more likely experienced sexual abuse. The study did not, however, find a correlation between childhood victimization of the subjects to subsequent alcohol misuse in men. Children, who in their early development witnessed violence at home, generally learn to imitate such aggressions later on in life. The author also attributes alcohol related violence to complications at birth which results in nervous systems, parental neglect as common in most alcoholic families makes a person more prone to behavioral problems such as violence and crime later on in life. Another reason given by National Institute on Alcohol Abuse (2016) is of the brain’s chemical messenger known as serotonin. This chemical is suspected to act as a behavioral inhibitor, therefore, its availability is indirectly proportional to aggression and impulsive behavior. Specifically, a decrease in serotonin which is associated with early onset alcoholism among men is also associated with aggression. According to the study, researchers developed an animal model which acted as a simulation to the characteristics of alcoholism in humans using Rhesus macaque monkeys. This research found out that these monkeys inhibiting low serotonin activity consumed more alcohol and demonstrated difficulty in impulse control thus more aggressive. The study made a conclusion that this behavior shown by these monkeys are a direct replica of type II alcoholics. The study further noted that as with humans these monkeys had a correlation between parental neglect, early alcohol consumption and decreased serotonin activity. Alcohol coupled with high amounts of testosterone results into an aggressive behavior, therefore, it can be reason for some violence after taking alcohol. According to National Institute on Alcohol Abuse (2016), testosterone is needed for development of male sexual characteristics and has been found to be high in criminals associated with aggression, suspiciousness, and hostility. The study by the authors found out that in animal experiments alcohol intake resulted increased aggression in squirrels with high levels of testosterone. However, there was no increased aggression on subordinate monkeys. According to National Institute on Alcohol Abuse (2016), alcohol abuse together with a tendency to indulge in violence is because of common reasons. The reasons include an individual’s temperamental trait and the society in general, increased occurrence of anti-social personality disorder. The author points out that the association between alcohol intake and violence can rise by simple chance with no any direct cause. For example according to the author many adult Americans are likely to cause violence just on its own without any intake of alcohol. This type of association between violence and alcohol is described by the author as a spurious association. The general psychology of violence is that not only is an individual’s behavior determined given his/her environment but also his/her biological characteristics for example hormones and brain. This difference in brain chemistry is another cause that the author attributes to the observation that there is more aggression in some people but not necessarily in others. EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL RELATED VIOLENCE According to Morgan (2009), alcohol use in Australia particularly at high levels is a very significant risk factor for violence. According to Laslett et al. (2010), in 2005 over 70,000 Australians were victims of alcohol related assault. According to the same author in the year of 2006 up to 2007 almost 20,000 children across Australia were victims of alcohol related violence. Alcohol use has a social context attached to it, according to Roche et al. (2009). INTERVENTIONS AGAINST ALCOHOL RELATED VIOLENCE According to Dennis and Edward (2010), there are many concepts of harm minimization in the case of alcohol related violence. On supply reduction, the study recommends price controls especially by increasing price which will result in reduction of consumption. The other is by reducing trading hours for licensed premises. The study also points that by reducing density of alcohol sales outlets is a very effective way based on International evidence in reducing its usage however this method has not been widely used in Australia. Dennis and Edward (2010), point it out that demand reduction is another way aimed at preventing the intake of harmful substances and minimization of harm among those already using these substances. To ensure reduction of harm to unborn infants an early reduction in consumption during pregnancy is encouraged. Another method is provision of alternatives such as sports and other cultural activities particularly targeted at young people. On harm reduction, the author states that these are strategies aimed at reducing alcohol related injuries to individuals without reducing its use (Dennis and Edward 2010). The most common of this policy include use of community patrols and sobering shelters which is used by Australian government in respect to reducing harm in remote areas. These patrols are meant to stop people from harming themselves or other people by keeping them in safe havens. The other is by use of a program known as needle and syringe which advocates changing old for new needles this reduces effects of using dirty needles. This program has turned effective in the fight against HIV/AIDS. The other is offering care for the physically and cognitively impaired people considering that use of alcohol is for a myriad of reasons including living environment and as well as physical or cognitive impairment. Therefore by providing a conducive environment the need to use alcohol is reduced. RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION It is important to note that effectiveness of any intervention used by the Australian government is hard to quantify and more often than note is hugely subjective. It is common for the government to show how effective any measure is due to an increase in number of individuals accessing the service yet someone else might not consider this as an effective measure because maybe the quality of the service is bad therefore at the end of the day the output will not be as impressive. This study recommends a more detailed quantitative research into effectiveness of interventions on alcohol violence in Australia. This will provide milestones upon effectiveness of any program used by the government can be measured. REFERENCES Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2011-2012. Crime Victimization, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@nsf/lookup/4530.0Main+Features12011-12?OpenDocument. Dennis, G. 2009. Substance misuse Intervention programs: what works? Journal of National Drug Research Institute. Curtin University of Technology. 00301J. 2-14. Dennis, G and Edward, W. 2010. Reducing alcohol and other drug related harm. Journal of Closing the Gap .No. 3. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare & Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies. Goh, D., and Moffat, S. 2008. New South Wales Recorded Crime Statistics 2007. NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. Attorney General’s Department, Sydney. Kieran, A and Reynato, R. 2010. Australia’s Youth Matters. Young people talk about what’s important to them. Australian Youth Affairs Coalition. NSW. Laslett, A., Catalano, P., Chikritzhs et al .(2010). The Range and Magnitude of Alcohol’s Harm to others. Fitzroy, Victoria: AER Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, Turning Point Alcohol and Drug Centre, Eastern Health. McCrindle Research. 2013. Demographic Analysis of Youth in Australia. Social Analysis. NSW Australia. Pg.1 Morgan, M. 2009. Key issues in alcohol related violence. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse. 2016. Alcohol, Violence, and Aggression. Retrieved from http://pubs.njaa.hih.gov/publications/aa38.htm National institute on Alcohol Abuse. 2016. Youth Drinking: Risk factors and consequences. Retrieved from http://pubs.njaa.hih.gov/publications/aa37.htm Tanya, C., Richard, P., and Paul, J. 2004. Under-aged Drinking among 14-17 year olds and related Harms in Australia. Journal of National Drug Research Institute. No. 7. Curtin University, WA. The 2005 Australian Secondary Students’ Alcohol and Drug Survey. Roche, A., Bywood, P., Freeman, T., Pidd, K., Borlagdan, J., and Trifonoff, A .2009. The social Context of Alcohol Use in Australia. Adelaide: National Centre for Education and Training on Addiction. Roche, A., Watt, K., MacClure, R., Purdie, D .2001. Injury and alcohol: A hospital emergency department study. Drug and alcohol review, 20 157-168. Royal College Faculty of Public Health. (2005). Alcohol and Violence. Journal of Faculty of Public Health of Royal College of Physicians of the United Kingdom. Andrew’s Place. 1-3. 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