Infectious and Non-Infectious Diseases - Literature review Example

Infectious and non-infectious diseases s Epidemiology entails the study of the distribution as well as determinants of health-related events or states, such as, diseases, and the application of this study to the control of diseases along with other health problems (Rothman, Sander, & Lash, 2008, p.143). Hennekens, Buring, and Mayrent (2009, p.68) add that epidemiology studies causes, effects, and patterns of disease and health conditions in a defined population. There are several methods that may be utilized to perform epidemiological investigations including descriptive and surveillance studies that is used to study distribution and analytical studies that are used to study determinants. Epidemiology has assisted inform policy decisions as well as evidence-based practice by determining the risk factors for disease along with the targets for preventive measures. According to Rothman, Lash (2008, p.112), epidemiology has assisted in the development of methodology utilized in public health studies and clinical research. Infectious disease: AIDS in Africa, South Africa. In Africa, AIDS kills more people as compared to conflicts. It is a major public concern and a cause of death in most parts of Africa. An estimated 32.5 million people were living with HIV/AIDS in 2012. Of the estimated 39.4 million individuals living with HIV/AIDS globally, more than two thirds reside in Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa alone accounted for about 71% of the total number of people living with HIV (Iliffe, 2012, p.89). AIDS prevalence in Africa ((Iliffe, 2012, p.23). However, epidemiological studies have indicated that Southern Africa is the worst affected region in Africa including countries, such as, Lesotho, South Africa, Zambia, Namibia, and Mozambique. Figure 1: Estimated HIV infection showing high rates of infection in southern Africa (Fourie, 2012, p.34). In South Africa, HIV/AIDS is a significant health concern. It is believed the country has more people either living or infected with HIV/AIDS than any other nation globally. Nearly 300,000 South Africans died of HIV/AIDS in 2010. It is approximated that between 41% and 48% of all deaths among the South African citizens are attributable to HIV/AIDS. Women face a greater risk of HIV infection. Averagely, three women are infected with HIV/AIDS for every two men who have been infected. In the same way, the difference is much greater in the 30-34 age groups, where 3 young women are infected for every infected young man. Figure 2: HIV prevalence by age and sex in South Africa, 2012 (Fourie, 2012, p.56). Going by province, Kwa Zulu Natal is the most affected, while Western Cape is least affected with the low prevalence rates. Graphs of HIV prevalence by province (15-49 years) in South Africa (Fourie, 2012, p.183). However, it has been found out that the prevalence rates have been increasing since 1990. Graph of HIV prevalence in South Africa from 1990 to 2010 (Fourie, 2012, p.85). Preventive measures As cited by Mandell, Bennett, and Dolin (2010, p.67), various public education initiatives are in place to curb HIV spread in Africa. The South African government aims at reducing sexual transmission of HIV by 50% by 2018 through increasing awareness with male-to-male sexual transmission to be reduced to 30% and heterosexual contact reduced to 14%. Pie chart on HIV transmission. In 2010, only 30% of the infected people were receiving anti-retroviral treatment (ART). By 2012, over 1.5 million South African adults were receiving ART (Fourie, 2012, p.175). HIV infection in children is attributed to the vertical transmission either during perinatal and antenatal periods (Brahmbhatt et al., 2006, p.506). Children are exposed to HIV infection in the womb, during birth, or postnatally via breastfeeding (Agostoni et al., 2007, p.175). Preventing HIV transmission from the pregnant women to children will reduce HIV prevalence by 30%. More than three-quarters of women living with HIV are recipients of antiretrivrial medicine so as to deter the transmission to the child including antenatal HIV testing, bottle feeding, and exclusive breastfeeding, as well as the uptake of nevirapine for the infected mothers (Slogrove, Cotton, & Esser, 2010, p.78). Consistent utilization of the condom reduces the risk of HIV transmission by about 80% in the long term. Since women are most affected with HIV, application of vaginal gel that contains tenofovir straight away after sex reduces infection rates by nearly 40% among African women. In the same way, circumcision in the Sub-Saharan Africa decreases HIV acquisition by heterosexual men by between 37% and 67% over one year (Sax & Baden, 2009, p.1898). Both the World Health Organization and UNAIDS have recommended male circumcision as a preventive measure of male-to-female HIV transmission. Finally, the ABC (abstinence, be faithful, use a condom) strategy prevents HIV infection emphasizes the need for fidelity as well as safer sexual behavior. It is usually used together with biomedical prevention approaches. Non-infectious disease: Sickle cell in the United Kingdom Sickle cell anemia is an inherited disorder of the blood hemoglobin (the protein within the blood that carries oxygen). It usually requires the inheritance of two sickle cell genes. Studies have demonstrated that the inheritance of one sickle cell gene never causes any problems. In this regard, the irregular sickled cells block the blood vessels causing organ and tissue damage, as well as pain. Sickle cell disease is very common in individuals of Caribbean, Middle Eastern, African, Asian, and Eastern Mediterranean descent. In the United Kingdom, sickle cell disorder is commonly seen in the people of Caribbean and African origin. In England alone, an estimated 250,000 people are thought to have the sickle cell trait. Similarly, 80% of this population is those of African-Caribbean descent. Figure 3 showing the sickle cell infections in pink and purple with purple indicating acute infections (Serjeant, 2010, p.426). There were nearly 29,000 deaths due to sickle cell disease across the globe. In the United Kingdom, sickle cell disease has affected 60, 270 people. In England, it has been found out that sickle cell anemia affects 1 in every 2400 live births. This is because in the U.K all infants receive a blood test to screen for sickle cell anemia within a week of birth (Serjeant, 2010, 425). Prevention of sickle cell disease Sickle cell anemia has no available cure, but the treatments are aimed at relieving the symptoms along with treating complications. The major aims of preventing the spread of sickle cell disease are prevent infections, relieve pain, control complications if they occur, and prevent infections, strokes, and organ damage (Yawn et al., 2014, p.1035). In England children receive a blood test to screen for sickle cell anemia within a week of birth. Early detection of sickle cell disease reduces sickle cell related problems by 85%. If the sickle cell disease reaches the critical point, the treatments include blood transfusion, taking of pain medicines, and plenty of fluids. Mild pain is usually treated with over-the-counter pain medicines while at home. Treatment for mild-to-moderate pain often commences with acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, for instance, ibuprofen. It the pain becomes severe opioids can be required since they are considered as strong medicines (Mason, 2012, p. 1318-1320). People with this condition need to take a lot of folic acid supplements. The folic acid assists in the production of new red blood cells (Gladwin et al., 2014, p.135). The other treatments for the disease include hydoxyurea which aids in the reduction of pain episodes including breathing problems as well as chest pain. However, people on hydroxyurea need to have careful follow-up with frequent blood tests. Antibiotics assist in the prevention of bacterial infections common in children suffering from sickle cell anemia. Daily penicillin is given to children aged 2 years until they attain the age of 5. Children having sickle cell anemia need to have regular checkups with a blood specialist (Yawn et al., 2014, p. 1045). Serjeant and Bery (2010, p.67) argue that the recommended treatments to manage complications of sickle cell disease comprise of: dialysis for kidney disease; counseling for psychological complications; removal of the gall bladder in people with gallstone disease; surgery for eye problems; wound care for leg ulcers; finally, treatment for abuse of narcotic pain medicines. References Agostoni, C., Zuccotti, V., Giovannini, M., Decarlis, S., Giannì, M., Piacentini, E., DAuria, E., & Riva, E. (2007). Growth in the first two years of uninfected childrenborn to HIV-1 seropositive mothers. Arch Dis Child., 79 (12), 175–178. Brahmbhatt, H., Kigozi, G., Wabwire-Mangen, F., Serwadda, D., Lutalo, T., Nalugoda, F.,Sewankambo, N., Kiduggavu, M., Wawer, M., & Gray, R. (2006). Mortality in HIV-infected and uninfected children of HIV-infected and uninfected mothers in rural Uganda. J Acq Immun Def Synd., 41(4), 504-508. Gladwin, T., Bars, J., Gibbs, R., Hildesheim, M., & Sachdev, V., et al. (2014). Risk Factors for Death in 632 Patients with Sickle Cell Disease in the United States and United Kingdom, JAMA 12 (1), 134-146. Fourie, P. (2012). The Political Management of HIV and AIDS in South Africa: One burden too many? New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Hennekens, C., Buring, J., & Mayrent, S. (2009). Epidemiology in Medicine. London: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Iliffe, J. (2012). The African AIDS Epidemic: A History, Durban: Jamedns Currey. Mandell, G., L.., Bennett, J., & Dolin, R. (2010). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennetts Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. Mason, V. R. (2012). "Sickle cell anemia". JAMA 79 (14): 1318–1320. Rothman K, Sander G., & Lash T, (2008). "Modern Epidemiology," London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Sax, P., & Baden, L (2009). When to start antiretroviral therapy—ready when you are?" The New England Journal of Medicine 360 (18), 1897–1899. Serjeant, G., & Beryl, E. (2010). Sickle cell disease, New York: Oxford University Press. Serjeant, G. (2010). “One hundred years of sickle cell disease.” British Journal of Haematology 151 (5): 425–429. Slogrove, A., Cotton, F., & Esser, M. (2010). Severe infections in HIV-exposed uninfected infants: Clinical evidence of immunodeficiency. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 56(3), 75-81. Yawn, B., Buchanan, G., Afenyi-Annan, A., Ballas, S., Hassell, L. James, H., Jordan, L., Lanzkron, M., Lottenberg, R., Savage, J., Tanabe, J., Ware, E., Murad, H., Goldsmith, C., Ortiz, E., Fulwood, R., Horton, A., & John-Sowah, J. (2014). "Management of sickle cell disease: Summary of the 2014 evidence-based report by expert panel members, " JAMA 312 (10): 1033–1048. Read More